🗺️World Geography Unit 5 – North America: Culture, People, and Economy

Key Geographic Features

• North America covers an area of approximately 9.54 million square miles (24.71 million square kilometers)
• The continent is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south
• Major mountain ranges include the Rocky Mountains, which extend from Canada to the southwestern United States, and the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern part of the continent
  • The highest peak in North America is Denali (formerly known as Mount McKinley) in Alaska, standing at 20,310 feet (6,190 meters) tall
• Significant rivers include the Mississippi River, which flows from north to south through the central United States, and the St. Lawrence River, which connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean
• The Great Lakes system, shared by the United States and Canada, contains the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world by total area
  • The five Great Lakes are Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario
• North America is home to diverse biomes, including tundra, boreal forests, temperate forests, grasslands (prairies), and deserts
• The continent's coastlines feature numerous bays, gulfs, and inland seas, such as Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf of California

Indigenous Peoples and Early History

• Before European colonization, North America was inhabited by various indigenous groups with diverse cultures, languages, and ways of life
• The Inuit and Aleut peoples inhabited the Arctic regions of North America, adapting to the harsh climate through hunting, fishing, and the development of unique technologies (kayaks, igloos)
• In the Pacific Northwest, indigenous groups like the Haida, Tlingit, and Kwakiutl developed complex societies based on fishing, woodworking, and elaborate artistic traditions (totem poles)
• The Great Plains region was home to nomadic tribes like the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Comanche, who relied on hunting bison and developed horse cultures after the introduction of horses by Europeans
• In the American Southwest, the Pueblo peoples built sophisticated adobe structures and developed advanced irrigation systems for agriculture
• Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya and Aztec, flourished in present-day Mexico and Central America, creating complex cities, advanced calendars, and writing systems
• The Iroquois Confederacy, a political and cultural alliance of six Native American nations, was established in the northeastern region of North America before European contact

Colonial Era and European Influence

• European exploration of North America began in the late 15th century, with voyages by Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and Giovanni da Verrazzano
• The Spanish established the first permanent European settlement in North America at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565
• The British established colonies along the Atlantic coast, including Jamestown (1607) and Plymouth (1620), which later formed the basis for the Thirteen Colonies
• French colonization focused on the St. Lawrence River Valley, the Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi River Valley, establishing cities like Quebec and New Orleans
• The Dutch established the colony of New Netherland, with its capital at New Amsterdam (present-day New York City), which was later surrendered to the British in 1664
• European colonization had a profound impact on indigenous populations, leading to displacement, disease, and cultural assimilation
  • The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes) and animals (horses, pigs, cattle) between the Americas and Europe, transforming agriculture and diets on both continents
• Colonial rivalries between European powers, particularly between Britain and France, led to a series of conflicts, including the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which resulted in British dominance of North America

Formation of Modern Nations

• The United States gained independence from Great Britain through the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), establishing a federal republic governed by the Constitution (1787)
  • The Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) significantly expanded the territory of the United States
• Canada remained under British rule, with the British North America Act (1867) establishing the Dominion of Canada as a confederation of provinces
  • Canada gained increasing autonomy through the Statute of Westminster (1931) and the Canada Act (1982), which established full legislative independence
• Mexico achieved independence from Spain in 1821, following the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821)
  • The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) led to the establishment of a new constitution and significant social and political reforms
• The countries of Central America, including Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, gained independence from Spain in the early 19th century
  • The United Provinces of Central America, a short-lived federal republic, existed from 1823 to 1841 before dissolving into separate nations
• The Caribbean islands experienced various paths to independence, with some remaining under European control (British, French, Dutch) while others gained sovereignty in the 20th century
  • The Cuban Revolution (1953-1959) led to the establishment of a communist government under Fidel Castro
  • Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1962

Cultural Diversity and Demographics

• North America is home to a diverse population with a wide range of ethnic, linguistic, and religious backgrounds
• The United States is known as a "melting pot" due to its history of immigration from various parts of the world
  • Major ethnic groups in the U.S. include White Americans, African Americans, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans
• Canada is officially bilingual, with both English and French as official languages
  • The province of Quebec has a distinct French-speaking culture and has sought greater autonomy within Canada
• Mexico and Central America have a mix of indigenous, European (primarily Spanish), and African influences, resulting in unique cultural traditions (Day of the Dead, Mayan and Aztec heritage)
• The Caribbean islands have diverse cultural influences, including African, European, and Asian, which are reflected in their languages, music (reggae, calypso), and cuisines
• Religious diversity is prevalent in North America, with significant populations of Christians, Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, and adherents of various other faiths
• The continent has experienced significant demographic shifts, with increasing urbanization, an aging population in some countries (U.S., Canada), and growing immigrant communities

Economic Powerhouses and Industries

• The United States has the largest economy in North America and the world, with a GDP of approximately $21.4 trillion (2019)
  • Key industries in the U.S. include technology, finance, healthcare, manufacturing, and agriculture
• Canada has a highly developed mixed economy, with significant resources in energy (oil and natural gas), minerals, and forestry
  • Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, particularly wheat, canola, and pulses
• Mexico has the second-largest economy in Latin America, with a focus on manufacturing (automobiles, electronics), oil and gas production, and tourism
  • The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020, has fostered economic integration between the three countries
• Central American countries have economies based on agriculture (coffee, bananas, sugar), textiles, and tourism
  • The Central America-Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) has increased trade and investment between the region and the United States
• Caribbean economies are largely dependent on tourism, financial services, and agriculture (sugar, bananas)
  • Some Caribbean nations, such as the Bahamas and the Cayman Islands, are known as offshore banking centers

Urban Development and Megacities

• North America has experienced significant urbanization, with over 80% of the population living in urban areas
• The United States has several megacities, including New York City, Los Angeles, and Chicago
  • New York City, with a population of over 8 million, is a global hub for finance, culture, and media
  • Los Angeles, with a population of over 4 million, is known for its entertainment industry and diverse neighborhoods
• Canada's largest cities include Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver
  • Toronto, with a population of over 2.7 million, is Canada's financial and cultural center
  • Vancouver, located on the west coast, is known for its natural beauty and high quality of life
• Mexico City, with a population of over 21 million in its metropolitan area, is one of the world's largest cities and a major economic and cultural center in Latin America
• Rapid urbanization has led to challenges such as housing shortages, traffic congestion, and income inequality
  • Many cities have implemented urban planning initiatives and public transportation systems to address these issues
• The growth of suburbs and satellite cities has created large metropolitan areas, such as the Washington-Baltimore-Arlington Combined Statistical Area in the U.S. and the Greater Toronto Area in Canada

Environmental Challenges and Conservation Efforts

• North America faces various environmental challenges, including climate change, deforestation, air and water pollution, and loss of biodiversity
• Climate change has led to rising sea levels, more frequent and intense natural disasters (hurricanes, wildfires), and shifts in weather patterns
  • The Arctic region is experiencing rapid warming, leading to the melting of sea ice and permafrost, which has significant implications for indigenous communities and wildlife
• Deforestation, particularly in the Amazon rainforest and the boreal forests of Canada, has resulted in habitat loss and increased carbon emissions
  • The logging industry and agricultural expansion are major drivers of deforestation
• Air pollution, particularly in urban areas, has negative impacts on human health and the environment
  • Initiatives such as the Clean Air Act in the United States have helped reduce emissions from vehicles and industries
• Water pollution, including agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and plastic pollution, threatens aquatic ecosystems and human health
  • The Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico have experienced issues with algal blooms and hypoxic "dead zones" due to nutrient pollution
• Conservation efforts aim to protect and restore natural habitats, such as national parks (Yellowstone, Banff), wildlife refuges, and marine protected areas
  • The Endangered Species Act in the United States has helped protect and recover threatened species, such as the bald eagle and the gray wolf
• International agreements, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change and the Convention on Biological Diversity, have encouraged countries to take action on environmental issues
  • The United States, Canada, and Mexico have collaborated on environmental initiatives through the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC), established under NAFTA