🗽US History Unit 8 – Growing Pains – The New Republic, 1790–1820

Key Political Developments

• Ratification of the U.S. Constitution established a federal system of government with separation of powers and checks and balances
• Development of the First Party System saw the emergence of Federalists (led by Alexander Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (led by Thomas Jefferson)
• Federalists advocated for a strong central government, national bank, and industrial development while Democratic-Republicans favored states' rights, an agrarian economy, and strict interpretation of the Constitution
• Peaceful transfer of power from Federalist John Adams to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson in the election of 1800 demonstrated the resilience of the new republic
• Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional
• Passage of the 12th Amendment (1804) reformed the electoral college system to prevent ties and ensure separate voting for President and Vice President

Economic Challenges and Growth

• Alexander Hamilton's financial plan aimed to stabilize the economy, assume state debts, and establish a national bank
  • Assumption of state debts and creation of the First Bank of the United States (1791) were controversial but helped establish national credit
• Development of early industries (textiles, iron, and glass) and infrastructure (roads, canals, and ports) laid the foundation for economic growth
• Invention of the cotton gin (1793) revolutionized the cotton industry, leading to increased demand for slave labor and economic disparity between North and South
• Embargo Act (1807) and subsequent trade restrictions during the War of 1812 stimulated domestic manufacturing and reduced dependence on foreign goods
• Second Bank of the United States (1816) was chartered to stabilize currency and regulate state banks, but faced opposition from states' rights advocates
• Panic of 1819, the first major financial crisis in U.S. history, led to widespread unemployment and economic distress

Foreign Policy and International Relations

• Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) declared U.S. neutrality in the conflict between France and Great Britain, setting a precedent for avoiding entangling alliances
• Jay's Treaty (1794) resolved lingering disputes with Great Britain, but was seen as favoring British interests and sparked domestic opposition
• XYZ Affair (1797-1798) involved French demands for bribes and led to an undeclared naval war with France (Quasi-War)
  • Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) were passed in response to the XYZ Affair, restricting free speech and immigration
• Louisiana Purchase (1803) doubled the size of the United States, securing control of the Mississippi River and port of New Orleans
• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807) and continued impressment of American sailors by the British Navy heightened tensions leading to the War of 1812
• War of 1812 was fought over maritime rights, western expansion, and national pride
  • Burning of Washington D.C. (1814) and the Battle of New Orleans (1815) were key events in the war
  • Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the war, restoring pre-war borders and leaving many issues unresolved

Social and Cultural Changes

• Second Great Awakening (1790s-1830s) was a religious revival movement that emphasized personal salvation, moral reform, and social activism
  • Revival meetings (camp meetings) became popular and helped spread evangelical Christianity
• Reform movements emerged to address social issues such as temperance, prison reform, women's rights, and abolition
  • American Colonization Society (1816) proposed resettling free African Americans in Africa (Liberia)
• Expansion of public education and the establishment of state-funded schools aimed to create an informed citizenry
• Growth of newspapers, magazines, and libraries facilitated the spread of information and ideas
• Emergence of distinctly American art, literature, and music (Hudson River School, Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper) contributed to a growing sense of national identity

Territorial Expansion

• Northwest Ordinance (1787) established a process for admitting new states and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory
• Louisiana Purchase (1803) doubled the size of the United States, providing vast new territories for settlement and exploration
• Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) explored and mapped the Louisiana Purchase, paving the way for westward expansion
• Indian Removal Act (1830) authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from the Southeast to lands west of the Mississippi River
  • Trail of Tears (1838-1839) resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokee during their forced removal
• Acquisition of Florida from Spain through the Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) secured U.S. control of the Florida peninsula and defined the western border with New Spain (Mexico)

Major Figures and Their Impacts

• George Washington's presidency (1789-1797) set important precedents, including the establishment of a strong executive branch and the principle of neutrality in foreign affairs
• John Adams' presidency (1797-1801) faced challenges such as the XYZ Affair and the Alien and Sedition Acts, which tested the limits of federal power
• Thomas Jefferson's presidency (1801-1809) was marked by the Louisiana Purchase, the Barbary Wars, and the Embargo Act
  • Jefferson's vision of an agrarian republic conflicted with Hamilton's vision of a more industrialized nation
• James Madison's presidency (1809-1817) was dominated by the War of 1812 and the subsequent Era of Good Feelings
• John Marshall's tenure as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1801-1835) established the principle of judicial review and strengthened the power of the federal judiciary

Controversies and Conflicts

• Whiskey Rebellion (1794) was a tax revolt in western Pennsylvania that challenged the authority of the federal government
• Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) restricted free speech and immigration, sparking debates over civil liberties and the power of the federal government
• Hartford Convention (1814) was a meeting of Federalists who opposed the War of 1812 and proposed amendments to the Constitution to limit federal power
• Missouri Compromise (1820) attempted to balance the admission of slave and free states, temporarily easing tensions over the spread of slavery
• Nullification Crisis (1832-1833) involved South Carolina's attempt to nullify federal tariffs, challenging the supremacy of federal law and raising the specter of secession

Legacy and Long-term Effects

• Establishment of a strong federal government and the supremacy of the Constitution laid the foundation for future national development
• Emergence of a two-party political system and the peaceful transfer of power set important precedents for American democracy
• Economic policies and territorial expansion set the stage for rapid industrialization and westward migration in the mid-19th century
• Unresolved issues surrounding slavery and states' rights would eventually lead to the Civil War and the end of slavery
• Development of a distinct American identity and culture would continue to evolve throughout the 19th and 20th centuries
• Precedents set in foreign policy, such as neutrality and the Monroe Doctrine (1823), would shape U.S. international relations for generations to come