24.4 Republican Ascendancy: Politics in the 1920s
6 min read•june 24, 2024
The 1920s saw a shift in American politics and society. Republican presidents Harding and Coolidge championed pro-business policies and limited government, leading to economic growth but also wealth concentration. This era of and reshaped the nation's economy and culture.
Mass media, including radio and movies, transformed American life. These new forms of communication created a shared national culture and fueled consumerism. However, cultural conflicts emerged over issues like , women's changing roles, and immigration, reflecting tensions between tradition and modernity.
Republican Presidencies of the 1920s
Harding's presidency and scandals
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- Harding's "Return to " campaign promised a return to pre-World War I conditions emphasized limited government intervention and a pro-business approach ()
- Key policies during Harding's presidency included signing the of 1921 which created the and the to manage federal spending, supported high protective tariffs such as the of 1922 to shield American businesses from foreign competition, and appointed pro-business officials to key positions such as as Secretary of the Treasury
- Scandals during Harding's administration:
- : Secretary of the Interior leased Navy oil reserves to private companies in exchange for personal loans and gifts
- : Director embezzled funds and accepted bribes in the construction of veterans' hospitals
- Harding died in office in 1923 leaving his vice president to succeed him
Coolidge's Republican strategies
- Coolidge known as "" portrayed himself as a symbol of stability and integrity following Harding's scandals
- Continued Harding's pro-business policies and limited government intervention by supporting tax cuts particularly for the wealthy to stimulate economic growth () and reduced government spending to pay off a significant portion of the national debt
- Coolidge's hands-off approach to governance resonated with the public who were tired of the progressive reforms and government activism of the previous decades
- Successfully mediated labor disputes such as the 1924 which bolstered his reputation as a strong leader
- Easily won the 1924 presidential election benefiting from a divided Democratic Party and a strong economy
Impact of 1920s pro-business policies
- Economic growth and prosperity saw (GNP) increase by 40% between 1922 and 1929, unemployment remained low averaging around 3.7% throughout the decade, and wages increased improving the standard of living for many Americans
- Concentration of wealth and income inequality resulted in the top 1% of the population owning 40% of the nation's wealth by 1929 while lower-income groups did not benefit as much from the economic boom
- Expansion of consumer culture and credit increased availability of consumer goods such as automobiles and household appliances with and credit becoming more common allowing people to purchase goods they could not afford outright
- Speculative investing and stock market bubble fueled by low interest rates and easy credit encouraged speculative investing in the stock market while lack of regulation and excessive optimism contributed to the formation of a stock market bubble which eventually burst in October 1929 leading to the
- Limited government oversight and regulation allowed for minimal government intervention in business affairs enabling the growth of monopolies and trusts while lack of regulations on banking and investing contributed to the instability that led to the Great Depression
Republican Party dominance and political landscape
- The maintained control of the presidency throughout the 1920s, promoting policies of limited government and business-friendly initiatives
- Prosperity became a hallmark of Republican leadership, with the party taking credit for the economic boom of the decade
- in foreign policy gained popularity, with the U.S. rejecting membership in the League of Nations and focusing on domestic affairs
- The between urban and rural America intensified, with Republicans generally appealing to more traditional, rural values
Social and Cultural Changes in the 1920s
Factors leading to consumerism and mass culture
- Increased productivity and technological advancements lowered the cost of consumer goods through assembly line production, standardization, electrification of homes, and introduction of labor-saving appliances
- Rising wages and disposable income grew by 22% between 1923 and 1929 allowing more Americans to participate in the consumer economy
- Expansion of credit and installment buying resulted in 60% of automobiles and 80% of radios being purchased on credit by 1929 enabling consumers to buy goods they could not afford outright
- Advertising and mass media promoted new products and fueled consumer desire through radio, print advertising, and mass-circulation magazines such as and which emerged to shape public opinion
- and the growth of leisure activities provided more Americans access to a wider variety of goods and services in cities while the rise of leisure activities such as movies and spectator sports created new markets for consumer spending
Impact of mass media
- Radio:
- By 1929, 40% of American households owned a radio
- Radio programming including news, entertainment, and advertising helped create a shared national culture
- Political figures such as President Roosevelt used radio to communicate directly with the public
- Movies:
- Weekly movie attendance reached 90 million by the end of the 1920s
- studios such as and dominated the film industry and created a star system
- Movies influenced fashion, language, social norms, and provided a form of escapism for Americans
- Standardization of culture occurred as mass media helped create a more homogeneous national culture by exposing Americans to the same information and entertainment leading to a decline in regional differences and local cultures
- Consumerism and advertising turned mass media particularly radio and magazines into powerful tools for advertisers to reach a wide audience and encourage Americans to buy new products and participate in the consumer economy
- Censorship and moral concerns led to the adoption of the in 1930 which established guidelines for the content of motion pictures to address concerns about the influence of movies on public morals while radio programming faced similar scrutiny with some groups advocating for greater regulation of content
1920s cultural conflicts
- Prohibition ( and ) banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages leading to the growth of organized crime, , and while highlighting the cultural divide between urban and rural Americans as well as between immigrants and native-born citizens
- (1925) was a high-profile legal case challenging the teaching of evolution in public schools representing the conflict between and traditionalism as well as the role of religion in public life and although the teacher John Scopes was convicted, the trial sparked a national debate about science, religion, and education
- Changing role of women:
- (1920) granted women the right to vote
- "" culture challenged traditional gender norms with women embracing shorter hairstyles, shorter skirts, and more independent lifestyles
- More women entered the workforce particularly in clerical and service jobs
- Double standard persisted with women still facing discrimination and limited opportunities compared to men
- and immigration restrictions reflected fears of cultural and economic competition from immigrants particularly those from Southern and Eastern Europe through the (1921) and (1924) which limited immigration based on national origins while the reemerged in the 1920s promoting nativism, white supremacy, and anti-Catholicism
- was a cultural movement centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York City that celebrated African American art, literature, music, and intellectual life challenging stereotypes and promoting racial pride while also highlighting the ongoing struggle for civil rights and equality
- The rise of modernism in art and literature challenged traditional values and artistic conventions, often clashing with more conservative cultural elements
Key Terms to Review (48)
18th Amendment: The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the United States, leading to the era of Prohibition. This landmark legislation had a significant impact on various aspects of American society during the 1920s.
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution granted American women the right to vote, prohibiting any denial of voting rights based on sex. This landmark legislation was the culmination of decades of activism and advocacy by the women's suffrage movement.
Albert Fall: Albert Bacon Fall was a U.S. Secretary of the Interior during the Harding administration, who was at the center of the Teapot Dome scandal, a major political corruption case in the 1920s. His involvement in this scandal led to his conviction and imprisonment, becoming a symbol of the Republican Ascendancy's abuse of power during the decade.
Andrew Mellon: Andrew Mellon was a prominent American banker, businessman, and politician who served as the United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1921 to 1932. He was a key figure during the Republican Ascendancy of the 1920s, playing a significant role in shaping the economic policies of the era.
Bootlegging: Bootlegging refers to the illegal production, distribution, and sale of alcoholic beverages, especially during the Prohibition era in the United States. It was a widespread practice that emerged in response to the nationwide ban on the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcohol imposed by the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Boston Police Strike: The Boston Police Strike was a significant event that occurred in 1919, where members of the Boston Police Department walked off the job, leading to a breakdown in law and order in the city. This strike was a key event during the period of demobilization and economic upheaval in the aftermath of World War I, as well as the rise of the Republican Party's political dominance in the 1920s.
Budget and Accounting Act: The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 was a landmark piece of legislation that centralized and standardized the federal budgeting process in the United States. It established the Bureau of the Budget, the predecessor to the modern Office of Management and Budget, and required the president to submit an annual budget proposal to Congress.
Bureau of the Budget: The Bureau of the Budget was a federal agency established in 1921 to oversee and manage the budgetary process of the United States government. It played a crucial role in the Republican Ascendancy of the 1920s by centralizing financial control and promoting fiscal responsibility.
Calvin Coolidge: Calvin Coolidge was the 30th President of the United States, serving from 1923 to 1929. He was known for his conservative fiscal policies and his belief in limited government intervention in the economy, which aligned with the Republican Ascendancy and the political landscape of the 1920s.
Charles R. Forbes: Charles R. Forbes was the director of the United States Veterans Bureau during the 1920s, a position he used to engage in corruption and scandal that became a major political issue during the Republican Ascendancy in the 1920s.
Consumerism: Consumerism refers to the societal shift towards an increased focus on the acquisition and consumption of material goods and services as a means of achieving personal fulfillment, social status, and economic growth. It is a cultural phenomenon characterized by a strong emphasis on the desire to purchase, own, and display a wide array of consumer products.
Cultural Divide: The cultural divide refers to the significant differences in values, beliefs, and social norms that exist between various groups within a society, often leading to misunderstandings, tensions, and a lack of cohesion. This term is particularly relevant in the context of the Republican Ascendancy and the politics of the 1920s, as the decade saw a widening of the cultural divide between urban and rural Americans, as well as between traditional and modernizing factions.
Emergency Quota Act: The Emergency Quota Act was a United States federal law that established a quota system to limit the number of immigrants allowed to enter the country. It was enacted in 1921 and marked a significant shift in U.S. immigration policy towards more restrictive and discriminatory measures.
Flapper: A flapper was a young woman in the 1920s who embraced a more modern, liberated, and rebellious lifestyle, characterized by short skirts, bobbed hair, and a carefree attitude. Flappers were a symbol of the cultural and social changes that swept through the United States during the Roaring Twenties.
Fordney-McCumber Tariff: The Fordney-McCumber Tariff was a protectionist trade policy enacted in the United States in 1922 that raised import tariffs on a wide range of goods. It was a key economic policy during the Republican Ascendancy of the 1920s.
General Accounting Office: The General Accounting Office (GAO) is an independent agency that serves as the investigative arm of the United States Congress, responsible for auditing government agencies and programs to ensure accountability, transparency, and the effective use of taxpayer funds.
Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe and prolonged economic downturn that affected much of the world, including the United States, in the 1930s. It was characterized by high unemployment, reduced industrial output, and a significant decline in consumer spending and investment.
Gross National Product: Gross National Product (GNP) is the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents and businesses, regardless of their location. It is a measure of a country's economic output and is often used as an indicator of a nation's standard of living and economic well-being.
Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic movement that flourished in the African American community of Harlem, New York, during the 1920s. It was a period of unprecedented creativity, intellectual growth, and racial pride, which had a profound impact on the African American experience and the broader American culture.
Hays Code: The Hays Code, also known as the Motion Picture Production Code, was a set of moral guidelines and censorship regulations that governed the production of motion pictures in the United States from 1930 to 1968. It was designed to maintain a sense of decency and morality in the film industry, shaping the content and themes of Hollywood movies during this period.
Hollywood: Hollywood is a district in Los Angeles, California that is renowned for its vibrant film and entertainment industry. It has become synonymous with the American motion picture industry, serving as the epicenter of film production, distribution, and popular culture.
Installment Buying: Installment buying, also known as credit sales or deferred payments, is a method of purchasing goods or services where the buyer pays for the item in small, regular payments over time rather than the full amount upfront. This type of consumer credit allows individuals to purchase items they may not have the immediate cash to pay for in full.
Isolationism: Isolationism is a foreign policy strategy where a country intentionally limits its political, economic, and military involvement with the rest of the world. It emphasizes self-sufficiency and non-intervention in the affairs of other nations.
Ku Klux Klan: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is a racist, anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, and anti-Semitic hate group that has existed in various forms since the end of the American Civil War. The Klan's primary goals have been to maintain white supremacy, target minority groups, and oppose Reconstruction efforts to integrate formerly enslaved African Americans into society.
Laissez-Faire Economics: Laissez-faire economics is an economic system characterized by minimal government intervention and regulation, where the market is allowed to function with little to no interference from the state. This hands-off approach to the economy is based on the belief that the free market can self-regulate and that government intervention often leads to inefficiencies and unintended consequences.
Mass Culture: Mass culture refers to the shared cultural experiences, beliefs, and practices that emerge in a society due to the widespread dissemination of information and entertainment through various media channels. It is characterized by the standardization and commercialization of cultural products, catering to the tastes and preferences of a large, diverse audience.
Mellon Plan: The Mellon Plan was a series of tax reduction policies implemented during the 1920s under the Republican administration of President Calvin Coolidge. Proposed by Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon, the plan aimed to stimulate economic growth by lowering tax rates for high-income individuals and businesses.
MGM: MGM, or Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, was a major American film studio and entertainment company that dominated the movie industry during the Golden Age of Hollywood. It was formed in 1924 through the merger of three production companies: Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures, and Louis B. Mayer Pictures.
Modernism: Modernism is a broad movement in thought, the arts, architecture, and criticism that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional styles and values, and the experimentation with new forms of expression. It was a response to the rapid changes and challenges of the modern world.
National Origins Act: The National Origins Act was a series of laws passed in the 1920s that significantly restricted immigration to the United States. The act aimed to maintain the existing ethnic composition of the American population by favoring immigrants from northern and western Europe over those from southern and eastern Europe, as well as Asia.
Nativism: Nativism is a political and social movement that promotes the interests of established inhabitants of a region or country against those of immigrants. It often involves the belief that the native-born population should be favored over newcomers in areas such as employment, housing, and political representation.
Normalcy: Normalcy refers to a state of being ordinary, usual, or routine, particularly in the context of politics and society. It represents a desire for stability, predictability, and a return to traditional values and ways of life, often in reaction to periods of rapid change or upheaval.
Paramount: Paramount refers to something that is of the highest importance, supreme, or preeminent. In the context of 1920s American politics, the term 'Paramount' highlights the dominant and influential role that certain political and economic forces played during this period.
Progressivism: Progressivism was a broad reform movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, focused on addressing the social, economic, and political problems associated with rapid industrialization, urbanization, and social change. Progressives sought to harness the power of the federal government to address these challenges and improve the lives of all Americans.
Prohibition: Prohibition refers to the nationwide ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States from 1920 to 1933. It was enacted through the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and enforced by the Volstead Act.
Prosperity: Prosperity refers to a state of being successful, thriving, and experiencing economic well-being. It is a condition of good fortune, abundance, and financial security that enables individuals, communities, or nations to enjoy a high quality of life and achieve their goals.
Reader's Digest: Reader's Digest is a widely popular American general-interest magazine that provides a concise, accessible, and family-friendly compilation of articles, stories, and information on a variety of topics. It has been a prominent fixture in American households for decades, known for its ability to distill complex subjects into engaging and easy-to-read content.
Republican Ascendancy: The Republican Ascendancy refers to the period of Republican Party dominance in American politics during the 1920s. This era was characterized by the election of several Republican presidents and the party's control of both houses of Congress, leading to the implementation of conservative economic and social policies.
Republican Party: The Republican Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, founded in the 1850s. It is known for its conservative ideology, support for limited government, and promotion of free market capitalism. The Republican Party has played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the United States, particularly during key historical events and periods covered in this course.
Scopes Trial: The Scopes Trial, also known as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was a highly publicized 1925 court case in which a high school biology teacher, John Scopes, was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act by teaching evolution in a public school. The trial became a symbolic clash between modernism and fundamentalism in American culture during the 1920s.
Silent Cal: Silent Cal, also known as Calvin Coolidge, was the 30th President of the United States, serving from 1923 to 1929. He was known for his quiet and reserved demeanor, which earned him the nickname 'Silent Cal' due to his sparse public speaking and reluctance to engage in political debates or controversies.
Speakeasies: Speakeasies were illicit drinking establishments that operated during the Prohibition era in the United States, from 1920 to 1933. These secret bars and clubs allowed people to consume alcohol illegally, often in hidden or inconspicuous locations, as the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages was banned nationwide during this time period.
Teapot Dome Scandal: The Teapot Dome Scandal was a major American political scandal in the 1920s, involving the secret leasing of federal oil reserves to private oil companies in exchange for personal and political benefits. It was one of the biggest scandals of the Harding administration and had significant implications for the Republican Party's ascendancy in the 1920s.
Time: Time is a fundamental concept that describes the progression and duration of events, experiences, and phenomena. It is a crucial element in understanding the historical context of the Republican Ascendancy and the political landscape of the 1920s in the United States.
Urbanization: Urbanization refers to the process by which a population becomes increasingly concentrated in urban areas, leading to the growth and development of cities. This term is closely connected to the industrialization and economic transformation that occurred in the United States during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Veterans' Bureau Scandal: The Veterans' Bureau Scandal was a political controversy that occurred during the 1920s, involving allegations of corruption, mismanagement, and mistreatment of veterans within the Veterans' Bureau, a federal agency established to provide services and benefits to former members of the U.S. military.
Volstead Act: The Volstead Act was a federal law passed in 1919 that provided enforcement for the 18th Amendment, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors in the United States. It was a key piece of legislation that enabled the nationwide enforcement of Prohibition during the 1920s.
Warren G. Harding: Warren G. Harding was the 29th President of the United States, serving from 1921 until his death in 1923. He is known for his administration's involvement in the post-World War I demobilization process and the Republican political ascendancy that defined much of the 1920s.