9.3 Texas independence and annexation
6 min read•august 20, 2024
Texas independence and annexation marked a pivotal period in U.S. expansion. Anglo-American settlers in Mexican Texas clashed with the government, leading to revolution and the creation of an independent republic in 1836.
The Republic of Texas faced challenges as a sovereign nation. Ultimately, the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845, sparking tensions with Mexico and debates over slavery that contributed to the and .
Texas as a Mexican state
- After gaining independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico included the territory of Texas as part of the state of Coahuila y Tejas
- Mexico encouraged settlement in the sparsely populated northern frontier regions to create a buffer against encroaching American interests and hostile Native American tribes
Empresarios and Anglo-American settlers
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- Mexico granted land to empresarios, who were tasked with recruiting settlers to develop the land
- , known as the "Father of Texas," was the most successful empresario, establishing the first Anglo-American colony in Texas
- Anglo-American settlers, primarily from the southern United States, were drawn to Texas by the availability of inexpensive land and the opportunity for economic advancement
- Many settlers brought enslaved African Americans with them to work on cotton plantations, despite Mexico's prohibition of slavery
Tensions with Mexican government
- Cultural differences between Anglo-American settlers and the Mexican government led to growing tensions
- Settlers resisted learning Spanish, adopting Catholicism, and adhering to Mexican laws and customs
- Mexico's centralization policies, such as the abolition of slavery and increased taxation, further strained relations with the predominantly pro-slavery Anglo-American population
- The in 1832 expressed settlers' grievances against the Mexican government and called for adherence to the Mexican Constitution of 1824
Texas Revolution
- Tensions between Anglo-American settlers and the Mexican government escalated into open rebellion in 1835
- The , also known as the Texas War of Independence, lasted from October 1835 to April 1836
Siege of the Alamo
- In February 1836, Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna led a siege against the Alamo mission in San Antonio
- A small group of Texian defenders, including James Bowie and Davy Crockett, held out for 13 days against a much larger Mexican force
- The Alamo fell on March 6, 1836, with all defenders killed, but their resistance bought time for the Texian army to gather strength and became a symbol of heroic sacrifice
Battle of San Jacinto
- On April 21, 1836, the Texian army, led by General , launched a surprise attack on Santa Anna's forces at the
- The Texians decisively defeated the Mexican army in just 18 minutes, capturing Santa Anna and forcing him to sign the Treaties of Velasco, which granted Texas its independence
Establishment of Republic of Texas
- With the victory at San Jacinto, Texas declared itself an independent republic on March 2, 1836
- The Republic of Texas, also known as the , was recognized by the United States, France, and other nations
- The new republic faced challenges in establishing a stable government, defending its borders, and managing relations with Mexico, which refused to acknowledge Texas independence
Lone Star Republic
- The Republic of Texas existed as an independent nation from 1836 to 1845
- During this period, Texas faced political, economic, and diplomatic challenges as it sought to establish itself on the international stage
Sam Houston's presidency
- Sam Houston, the hero of the Texas Revolution, served as the first and third president of the Republic of Texas
- Houston's leadership was instrumental in navigating the early years of the republic, including establishing diplomatic relations with other nations and managing tensions with Mexico
- He advocated for annexation to the United States, believing it would provide greater stability and security for Texas
Challenges of independence
- The Republic of Texas struggled with a lack of funds, as it had limited revenue sources and difficulty securing loans from foreign nations
- Defending the republic's borders against Mexican incursions and Native American raids strained military resources
- Political instability, with frequent changes in leadership and competing factions, hindered effective governance
Push for U.S. annexation
- Many Texians, including Sam Houston, favored annexation to the United States for economic and security reasons
- However, the U.S. initially hesitated to annex Texas due to concerns over the legality of its independence, potential war with Mexico, and the issue of slavery
- The threat of British influence in Texas and the desire to expand slavery into new territories eventually led to increased support for annexation in the U.S.
U.S. annexation of Texas
- After years of debate and political maneuvering, the United States annexed Texas in 1845
- The annexation process was complicated by sectional tensions within the U.S. and the potential for war with Mexico
Slavery and sectional tensions
- The annexation of Texas inflamed sectional tensions between the North and South in the United States
- Southerners viewed Texas as an opportunity to expand slavery and bolster their political power, while many Northerners opposed the spread of slavery into new territories
- The Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had maintained a balance between free and slave states, was challenged by the annexation of Texas
Joint resolution vs treaty
- President John Tyler initially pursued annexation through a treaty, which required a two-thirds majority in the Senate for approval
- When the treaty failed to gain sufficient support, Tyler and his allies turned to a joint resolution of Congress, which required only a simple majority in both houses
- The joint resolution method was controversial, as it bypassed the traditional treaty-making process and raised questions about the constitutionality of annexation
Boundary disputes with Mexico
- The annexation of Texas reignited boundary disputes between the United States and Mexico
- Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern border, while Mexico insisted on the Nueces River as the boundary
- These competing claims, along with other factors such as the U.S. doctrine of , contributed to the outbreak of the U.S.-Mexican War in 1846
U.S.-Mexican War
- The U.S.-Mexican War, fought between 1846 and 1848, was a transformative event in North American history
- The conflict resulted in significant territorial gains for the United States and had lasting consequences for both nations
Causes and key battles
- The immediate cause of the war was the U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered to be a rebel province
- Other factors included the U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny, which justified westward expansion, and President James K. Polk's desire to acquire California and other Mexican territories
- Key battles included the Battle of Palo Alto, the Battle of Monterrey, and the Battle of Buena Vista, which showcased the superior military technology and tactics of the U.S. forces
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
- The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, officially ended the U.S.-Mexican War
- Under the terms of the treaty, Mexico ceded a vast territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
- In exchange, the U.S. agreed to pay Mexico 3.25 million in claims against Mexico by U.S. citizens
Territorial gains for U.S.
- The U.S.-Mexican War resulted in the largest territorial acquisition in U.S. history, with the country gaining over 500,000 square miles of land
- The newly acquired territories, known as the Mexican Cession, nearly doubled the size of the United States and extended its reach to the Pacific Ocean
- The territorial gains fueled debates over the expansion of slavery, as Northerners and Southerners clashed over whether the new territories would be free or slave states, setting the stage for the Civil War
Key Terms to Review (20)
Anglo-American Settlement: Anglo-American settlement refers to the migration and establishment of American settlers, predominantly from the United States, into areas of North America, particularly Texas, during the early 19th century. This influx of settlers was driven by various factors, including land grants from Mexico, economic opportunities, and a desire for new beginnings. As these settlers began to establish communities, their cultural, social, and political values began to influence the region significantly.
Battle of San Jacinto: The Battle of San Jacinto was a decisive military engagement fought on April 21, 1836, during the Texas Revolution, where Texian forces led by General Sam Houston achieved a swift and stunning victory over the Mexican army commanded by General Santa Anna. This pivotal battle resulted in the capture of Santa Anna and secured Texas independence from Mexico, significantly shaping the future of both Texas and the United States as it moved toward annexation.
Border disputes: Border disputes refer to disagreements between parties over the boundaries that separate them, often involving territory or sovereignty. These disputes can arise from various historical, political, and cultural factors, leading to tensions and conflicts between neighboring regions or countries. In the context of territorial changes and national expansion, such disputes played a crucial role in shaping the relationships between nations during significant historical events.
Compromise of 1850: The Compromise of 1850 was a series of legislative measures aimed at resolving tensions between slave and free states following the Mexican-American War. It included provisions that addressed issues such as the status of territories acquired from Mexico, the admission of California as a free state, and stricter fugitive slave laws, which attempted to balance the interests of both pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions.
James Fannin: James Fannin was a United States Army officer and a key figure in the Texas Revolution, known for his leadership during the Battle of Coleto and subsequent surrender to Mexican General José de Urrea. His actions and decisions during this crucial time in the fight for Texas independence had significant implications for the outcome of the revolution and influenced the later sentiments surrounding Texan independence and annexation.
Joint Resolution for Annexing Texas: The Joint Resolution for Annexing Texas was a legislative measure passed by the U.S. Congress in 1845, which facilitated the incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States as a state. This resolution stemmed from ongoing tensions regarding Texas's independence from Mexico and the desire among many Americans for territorial expansion, known as Manifest Destiny. It was a significant step in U.S. history, marking the expansion of American territory and intensifying sectional tensions over slavery.
Lone Star Republic: The Lone Star Republic refers to the independent nation of Texas that existed from 1836 to 1845, after it gained independence from Mexico. The term 'Lone Star' symbolizes Texas's status as a former republic and reflects its unique identity, culture, and history, which played a crucial role in the eventual annexation of Texas into the United States.
Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continents was both justified and inevitable. This belief drove the nation’s territorial growth and influenced policies related to westward expansion, often disregarding the rights and cultures of indigenous peoples and other nations.
Mexican-American War: The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico that lasted from 1846 to 1848, primarily driven by the U.S. desire to expand its territory. This war was fueled by tensions over the annexation of Texas, which had gained independence from Mexico in 1836, and issues surrounding the border between the two nations. The outcome significantly altered the geography of North America, leading to the acquisition of present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming.
Sam Houston: Sam Houston was a prominent American military and political leader known for his role in leading Texas to independence from Mexico and serving as the first President of the Republic of Texas. His leadership at the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836 was pivotal in securing Texas independence, and he later played a crucial role in the annexation of Texas into the United States, navigating the complex political landscape of the time.
Siege of the alamo: The siege of the Alamo was a pivotal event during the Texas Revolution in which Mexican forces besieged a small group of Texian defenders at the Alamo mission in San Antonio from February 23 to March 6, 1836. This iconic standoff became a symbol of resistance against oppression and ultimately rallied support for Texas independence from Mexico.
Slave state: A slave state is a state in the United States that legally sanctioned and upheld the institution of slavery, allowing for the ownership of enslaved individuals as property. These states were primarily located in the South and played a crucial role in the economic and social fabric of the region, which was heavily reliant on agriculture and slave labor. The distinction between slave states and free states was a significant factor in the political tensions leading up to the Civil War.
Stephen F. Austin: Stephen F. Austin was an American empresario known as the 'Father of Texas' for his significant role in colonizing Texas in the early 19th century. He led the first successful colonization of the region by bringing 300 families from the United States to settle in Texas, which was then part of Mexico, and he became a key figure in the movement for Texas independence from Mexico.
Tejano Culture: Tejano culture refers to the unique cultural identity of Texans of Mexican descent, blending elements of Spanish, Mexican, and American traditions. This culture developed in Texas over centuries, particularly influencing the social, political, and economic landscapes during events such as Texas independence and annexation.
Texas Declaration of Independence: The Texas Declaration of Independence was a document adopted on March 2, 1836, declaring the independence of Texas from Mexico. This pivotal declaration was inspired by growing tensions over issues such as governance, taxation, and cultural differences between Anglo settlers and the Mexican government. It marked a significant step in the broader movement for Texan independence, leading to the establishment of the Republic of Texas.
Texas Revolution: The Texas Revolution was a rebellion that took place between 1835 and 1836 in which American settlers in Texas fought for independence from Mexico. The conflict arose due to tensions over issues such as governance, land rights, and cultural differences, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Republic of Texas and its eventual annexation into the United States.
Treaty of Velasco: The Treaty of Velasco refers to two treaties signed in May 1836 between the Republic of Texas and Mexico that ended the Texas Revolution. The treaties established the terms for peace and recognized Texas' independence from Mexico, marking a significant moment in the quest for Texas independence and its subsequent annexation into the United States.
Turtle Bayou Resolutions: The Turtle Bayou Resolutions were a set of statements adopted by Texas settlers in 1832, asserting their grievances against the Mexican government and their desire for greater autonomy. These resolutions marked an important step in the growing sentiment for independence among Texas colonists and laid the groundwork for later calls for revolution against Mexican rule.
Westward expansion: Westward expansion refers to the 19th-century movement of settlers and immigrants into the western territories of the United States, driven by the belief in Manifest Destiny. This expansion was marked by significant events, policies, and conflicts that shaped the nation's growth and had lasting effects on Native American populations and the balance of power between free and slave states.
William B. Travis: William B. Travis was a prominent American soldier and a key figure in the Texas Revolution, known for his role as a commander during the Battle of the Alamo in 1836. He became an enduring symbol of bravery and sacrifice as he led a small group of Texian defenders against the larger Mexican army, ultimately dying in battle. His famous 'Victory or Death' letter exemplified his commitment to the cause of Texas independence.