Glossary

7.3 Social mobility and the American Dream

11 min read•august 20, 2024

, the movement between socioeconomic positions, is a key concept in sociology. It's closely tied to issues of inequality and opportunity. The American Dream, the belief that anyone can achieve success through hard work, is deeply intertwined with social mobility in the United States.

Measuring social mobility involves examining changes in occupation, income, and education across generations. Factors like family background, education, , and all play a role in shaping mobility. Recent trends show a slowdown in US social mobility, with growing inequality and racial disparities.

Defining social mobility

  • Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different socioeconomic positions within a society over time
  • It is a key concept in sociology and is closely related to issues of , inequality, and opportunity
  • Social mobility can be measured in terms of changes in occupation, income, education, or other indicators of socioeconomic status

Types of social mobility

Intragenerational vs intergenerational

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  • Intragenerational mobility refers to changes in an individual's socioeconomic position within their own lifetime
  • refers to changes in socioeconomic position across generations, comparing the status of parents and their children
  • Intergenerational mobility is often seen as a key indicator of the openness and fairness of a society

Structural vs exchange

  • refers to changes in the overall distribution of socioeconomic positions in a society, such as the expansion of middle-class jobs
  • refers to the movement of individuals between existing socioeconomic positions, without changing the overall structure of society
  • Structural mobility is often driven by broader economic and social changes, while exchange mobility reflects individual differences in ability, effort, and opportunity

Absolute vs relative

  • refers to changes in an individual's socioeconomic position in terms of objective measures such as income or education
  • refers to changes in an individual's position relative to others in their society or cohort
  • Absolute mobility can occur without relative mobility if everyone's socioeconomic status improves at the same rate

Measuring social mobility

Occupation-based measures

  • Occupation is a common indicator of socioeconomic status, with different occupations associated with different levels of prestige, income, and education
  • Social mobility can be measured by comparing the occupations of individuals across generations (intergenerational mobility) or over the course of their careers (intragenerational mobility)
  • Occupational mobility tables and indices are used to quantify the extent and patterns of mobility in a society

Income-based measures

  • Income is another key indicator of socioeconomic status, reflecting an individual's economic resources and standard of living
  • Social mobility can be measured by comparing the incomes of individuals or households across generations or over time
  • Income mobility matrices and transition probabilities are used to analyze the extent and direction of income mobility in a society

Education-based measures

  • Education is closely linked to socioeconomic status, with higher levels of education associated with better job prospects, higher incomes, and greater social prestige
  • Social mobility can be measured by comparing the of individuals across generations or over the course of their lives
  • Educational mobility tables and odds ratios are used to assess the openness and fairness of educational opportunities in a society

Factors influencing social mobility

Family background and resources

  • Family socioeconomic status, including parental education, occupation, and income, is a strong predictor of an individual's own socioeconomic outcomes
  • Families with greater economic resources can invest more in their children's education and development, providing advantages in school and the labor market
  • Family structure, such as growing up in a two-parent household, can also affect children's socioeconomic prospects

Education and human capital

  • Education is a key pathway to social mobility, providing individuals with the skills, knowledge, and credentials needed for higher-paying and more prestigious jobs
  • Inequalities in access to quality education, such as differences between rich and poor school districts, can limit social mobility for disadvantaged groups
  • emphasizes the economic returns to education and the importance of investing in education and training throughout the life course

Discrimination and bias

  • Discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, or other characteristics can create barriers to social mobility for marginalized groups
  • in hiring, promotion, and pay decisions can limit opportunities for advancement and perpetuate socioeconomic disadvantages across generations
  • Structural and institutional discrimination, such as residential segregation and unequal school funding, can also constrain social mobility

Social networks and connections

  • Social networks, including family, friends, and professional contacts, can provide access to information, resources, and opportunities that facilitate social mobility
  • Individuals from advantaged backgrounds often have more extensive and influential social networks, giving them a leg up in education and the labor market
  • , or the resources and benefits derived from social networks, can be as important as human capital in shaping socioeconomic outcomes

Social mobility in the US

  • The US has experienced periods of both rising and falling social mobility over its history, with notable expansions of opportunity in the mid-20th century
  • However, recent decades have seen a slowdown in social mobility, with fewer Americans experiencing and greater persistence of socioeconomic status across generations
  • The US has also seen growing income inequality and a hollowing out of the middle class, which may be contributing to the stagnation of social mobility

Comparison to other countries

  • The US has lower rates of social mobility than many other developed countries, particularly in Europe and Scandinavia
  • Countries with greater income equality and more generous social welfare policies tend to have higher rates of social mobility
  • The US's relatively high levels of income inequality and limited social safety net may be contributing to its lower levels of social mobility

Variations by race and ethnicity

  • There are significant racial and ethnic disparities in social mobility in the US, with Black and Hispanic Americans experiencing lower rates of upward mobility and higher rates of downward mobility than white Americans
  • These disparities are rooted in a long history of discrimination, segregation, and unequal access to education and economic opportunities
  • Policies such as and targeted investments in minority communities have sought to address these disparities and promote greater racial equity in social mobility

Variations by gender

  • There are also gender differences in social mobility in the US, with women historically experiencing lower rates of upward mobility and higher rates of downward mobility than men
  • These disparities are linked to gender discrimination in the workplace, unequal division of household labor and childcare responsibilities, and other structural barriers to women's advancement
  • However, in recent decades, women have made significant gains in education and the labor market, narrowing some of the gender gaps in social mobility

The American Dream

Origins and evolution of concept

  • The American Dream is the belief that anyone in the US can achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination, and equal opportunity
  • The concept has its roots in the country's founding ideals of individual liberty, self-reliance, and upward mobility
  • Over time, the American Dream has evolved to encompass different visions of success, from homeownership and middle-class stability to entrepreneurship and wealth accumulation

Relationship to social mobility

  • The American Dream is closely tied to the idea of social mobility, as it suggests that individuals can move up the socioeconomic ladder through their own efforts and abilities
  • Belief in the American Dream has historically been a powerful motivator for immigrants and disadvantaged groups seeking to improve their lives and the lives of their children
  • However, the reality of social mobility in the US has often fallen short of the American Dream, with many individuals and groups facing significant barriers to advancement

Critiques and challenges

  • Critics argue that the American Dream is more myth than reality, given the persistence of poverty, inequality, and limited social mobility in the US
  • The individualistic focus of the American Dream may obscure the structural and systemic barriers to social mobility, such as discrimination, unequal education, and concentrated poverty
  • The American Dream has also been challenged by economic changes, such as deindustrialization, globalization, and the decline of unions, which have eroded traditional pathways to middle-class stability

Impact on individual aspirations

  • Despite its limitations, the American Dream continues to shape individual aspirations and life choices in the US
  • Many Americans, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, see education and hard work as the key to achieving upward mobility and realizing the American Dream
  • However, the gap between aspirations and reality can lead to frustration, disillusionment, and political polarization, as individuals struggle to reconcile their hopes with the challenges they face

Policies promoting social mobility

Education policies and programs

  • Improving access to quality education, from early childhood through higher education, is seen as a key strategy for promoting social mobility
  • Policies such as universal pre-K, school funding equalization, and college financial aid aim to level the playing field and give all students a fair shot at success
  • Programs such as career and technical education, apprenticeships, and workforce development can also help individuals acquire the skills and credentials needed for upward mobility

Affirmative action and diversity

  • Affirmative action policies, which take race, ethnicity, and gender into account in college admissions and hiring decisions, seek to promote greater diversity and inclusion in education and the workforce
  • These policies aim to address historical and ongoing discrimination and provide opportunities for underrepresented groups to achieve social mobility
  • However, affirmative action remains controversial, with critics arguing that it amounts to reverse discrimination and supporters defending it as necessary to combat systemic inequalities

Minimum wage and labor laws

  • Raising the minimum wage and strengthening labor protections can help low-wage workers achieve greater economic security and upward mobility
  • Higher minimum wages can lift families out of poverty, reduce reliance on public assistance, and stimulate local economies
  • Other labor policies, such as paid family leave, predictable scheduling, and collective bargaining rights, can also support workers' ability to balance work and family responsibilities and achieve greater economic stability

Social welfare and safety nets

  • Social welfare programs, such as food stamps, housing assistance, and healthcare subsidies, can provide a safety net for individuals and families experiencing economic hardship
  • These programs can help prevent downward mobility and provide a foundation for upward mobility by ensuring basic needs are met and allowing individuals to invest in their education and job prospects
  • However, critics argue that social welfare programs can create disincentives to work and trap individuals in poverty, while supporters see them as necessary to combat inequality and promote social mobility

Social mobility and inequality

Social mobility as driver of inequality

  • Social mobility can actually contribute to inequality if it primarily benefits those who are already advantaged, such as through legacy admissions to elite colleges or nepotism in hiring
  • If upward mobility is limited to a small elite while others experience stagnation or downward mobility, it can exacerbate overall inequality in a society
  • Unequal access to the resources and opportunities that facilitate social mobility, such as quality education and social networks, can also perpetuate and widen socioeconomic gaps

Inequality as barrier to mobility

  • High levels of inequality can create barriers to social mobility by concentrating resources and opportunities among a small elite and limiting access for others
  • Inequality can also shape individuals' aspirations and expectations for mobility, with those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder feeling that the deck is stacked against them
  • Inequality can also lead to social and political instability, as individuals become frustrated with limited opportunities for advancement and perceive the system as unfair

Cycle of poverty and disadvantage

  • Poverty and disadvantage can be self-perpetuating, as individuals born into poor families face numerous obstacles to upward mobility
  • Poor families may lack the resources to invest in their children's education and development, putting them at a disadvantage from an early age
  • Poverty can also expose individuals to stressors such as crime, violence, and environmental hazards, which can further undermine their ability to achieve upward mobility

Wealth concentration and elite closure

  • The concentration of wealth among a small elite can create barriers to social mobility by allowing the wealthy to hoard opportunities and resources
  • Elites may use their wealth and influence to shape policies and institutions in ways that benefit themselves and their children, such as through tax breaks, exclusive social networks, and political donations
  • Elite closure, or the tendency of elites to marry and socialize within their own class, can also limit opportunities for upward mobility and perpetuate inequality across generations

Future of social mobility

  • The future of social mobility in the US and other countries is uncertain, with a range of emerging trends and challenges that could shape opportunities for advancement
  • Rising income and wealth inequality, declining unionization, and the growth of precarious and low-wage work could all make it harder for individuals to achieve upward mobility
  • At the same time, advances in education, healthcare, and technology could create new pathways for mobility and help level the playing field

Technological change and automation

  • Rapid technological change and automation are transforming the nature of work and the skills required for economic success
  • While some worry that automation could displace workers and exacerbate inequality, others see it as an opportunity to boost productivity and create new high-skill, high-wage jobs
  • Ensuring that all individuals have access to the education and training needed to thrive in an automated economy will be critical for promoting social mobility in the future

Globalization and labor markets

  • Globalization has reshaped labor markets and the distribution of economic opportunities both within and between countries
  • The outsourcing of jobs to lower-wage countries and the decline of manufacturing employment in the US and other developed economies have contributed to wage stagnation and limited upward mobility for many workers
  • However, globalization has also created new opportunities for individuals to acquire skills, start businesses, and tap into global markets, which could support social mobility in the future

Potential solutions and reforms

  • Promoting social mobility in the face of these challenges will require a range of policy solutions and reforms
  • Investing in education and workforce development, particularly for disadvantaged groups, can help individuals acquire the skills and credentials needed for upward mobility
  • Strengthening social safety nets and expanding access to healthcare, childcare, and affordable housing can provide a foundation for economic security and mobility
  • Reforming tax policies to reduce inequality and promote inclusive economic growth, such as through progressive taxation and wealth taxes, can also support social mobility
  • Ultimately, promoting social mobility will require a sustained commitment to creating a more just and equitable society, with opportunities for all individuals to reach their full potential

Key Terms to Review (27)

Absolute mobility: Absolute mobility refers to the ability of individuals or families to improve their economic status over time, usually measured by comparing income or wealth levels between generations. This concept is often linked to the idea that anyone can achieve upward mobility, reflecting a fundamental aspect of the American Dream where hard work and determination can lead to financial success and a better life.
Affirmative Action: Affirmative action refers to policies and practices designed to improve opportunities for historically marginalized groups, particularly in education and employment. It aims to address systemic inequalities and discrimination by promoting diversity and providing equal access to resources and opportunities.
Bias: Bias refers to a tendency or inclination that prevents impartial judgment, often leading to favoritism or prejudice against certain groups or ideas. This concept plays a crucial role in shaping social perceptions and can significantly impact social mobility and the American Dream by influencing opportunities and outcomes for individuals based on their race, gender, or socioeconomic status.
Census Bureau Statistics: Census Bureau statistics refer to the data collected and published by the U.S. Census Bureau, which conducts a decennial census as well as various surveys to gather demographic, social, and economic information about the population. This data is crucial for understanding social mobility, economic opportunities, and how different groups achieve the American Dream, revealing trends in income, education, and housing that impact people's chances of upward mobility.
Credentialism: Credentialism refers to the emphasis on formal qualifications and degrees as indicators of a person's skills and abilities, often leading to the belief that higher education credentials are essential for achieving success in society. This perspective can shape social mobility, where individuals feel pressured to obtain degrees to pursue the American Dream, as well as serve as a tool for social change by highlighting disparities in educational access and opportunity.
Cultural Capital: Cultural capital refers to the non-financial social assets that promote social mobility in a hierarchical society. It encompasses skills, knowledge, education, and any advantages a person has that can help them navigate and succeed in their social environment. These assets often influence individuals' access to resources and opportunities, affecting their overall socioeconomic status and experiences.
Discrimination: Discrimination refers to the unfair or prejudicial treatment of individuals based on characteristics such as race, gender, sexual orientation, or mental health status. It manifests in various forms, including social, institutional, and systemic practices that create barriers and inequalities. Understanding discrimination helps to reveal how intersecting identities can lead to compounded disadvantages, and how these patterns affect opportunities and well-being across different groups.
Economic capital: Economic capital refers to the financial resources and assets that individuals or groups possess, which can be used to generate wealth and influence social standing. This concept is crucial in understanding how resources contribute to an individual’s class position, access to opportunities, and overall socioeconomic status. Economic capital can shape one's ability to move between social classes and plays a significant role in achieving the American Dream.
Educational attainment: Educational attainment refers to the highest level of education that an individual has completed. It is a crucial indicator of a person's qualifications and skills, which can significantly influence their employment opportunities, income potential, and social mobility. Educational attainment is closely linked to socioeconomic status, impacting how individuals and families navigate the American Dream and achieve upward mobility in society.
Exchange mobility: Exchange mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups within a social hierarchy, often characterized by a situation where one group’s gain in socioeconomic status is balanced by another group’s loss. This concept highlights how changes in social status can occur without altering the overall distribution of wealth or resources, emphasizing the dynamic nature of social class structures and mobility within society.
Glass ceiling: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing to upper-level positions in organizations and industries, despite their qualifications and achievements. This concept highlights systemic issues in workplaces that perpetuate gender and racial inequalities, making it difficult for marginalized groups to achieve equal representation in leadership roles.
Human capital theory: Human capital theory is an economic framework that views individuals' skills, knowledge, and experiences as valuable assets that contribute to economic productivity and growth. It emphasizes the importance of investing in education and training as a means to enhance these personal attributes, thereby improving one's ability to participate effectively in the workforce. This theory connects closely to concepts of social mobility and the American Dream, as it suggests that individuals can improve their socio-economic status through the accumulation of human capital.
Intergenerational mobility: Intergenerational mobility refers to the changes in social status that occur from one generation to the next within a family. It reflects how children’s economic and social positions compare to those of their parents, highlighting the degree of equality of opportunity in a society. High intergenerational mobility indicates that children can achieve a better socioeconomic status than their parents, while low mobility suggests that family background heavily influences an individual’s future opportunities.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various social identities such as race, gender, sexuality, class, and ability intersect and create overlapping systems of discrimination or privilege. It highlights the complexity of individuals' experiences and challenges the notion that social categories operate independently.
Meritocracy: Meritocracy is a social system where individuals achieve success and upward mobility based on their abilities, talents, and efforts rather than their social class or background. This concept is closely tied to the idea that hard work and talent should determine a person's opportunities and rewards, leading to the belief that anyone can succeed if they put in the necessary effort. However, the reality often reveals barriers that can prevent equal access to opportunities, raising questions about the fairness of a meritocratic system.
Minimum wage laws: Minimum wage laws are regulations set by the government that establish the lowest hourly wage rate that employers can legally pay their workers. These laws are designed to protect workers from exploitation and ensure a basic standard of living, impacting various aspects of labor rights, economic stability, and social justice.
Pew Research Center studies: Pew Research Center studies refer to the research and surveys conducted by the Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan organization that provides data and analysis on various social issues, including social mobility and the American Dream. These studies offer insights into how different demographics experience upward mobility, the barriers they face, and their perceptions of the American Dream, helping to illuminate the complexities of societal change in the context of race and gender.
Pierre Bourdieu: Pierre Bourdieu was a French sociologist known for his theories on social practice, cultural capital, and the ways social structures influence individual behavior. His work highlights how class and socioeconomic status shape people’s lives, revealing the connections between culture, education, and social inequalities. Bourdieu's concepts help explain phenomena like classism and discrimination, as well as the barriers to social mobility that people face, especially in relation to the American Dream and educational outcomes.
Relative mobility: Relative mobility refers to the ability of individuals or families to move up or down the socioeconomic ladder in comparison to others within their society. This concept is crucial in understanding how personal circumstances, such as education and family background, can influence an individual's economic position in relation to their peers, and it often serves as a measure of inequality and fairness in opportunities within a society.
Social capital: Social capital refers to the networks, relationships, and norms that enable individuals and groups to work together effectively within a society. It plays a crucial role in facilitating cooperation and collective action, leading to improved economic and social outcomes. High levels of social capital often correlate with greater trust, community engagement, and access to resources, which can significantly impact areas such as wealth distribution, housing opportunities, social mobility, and health disparities.
Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or families to move up or down the socioeconomic ladder, affecting their social status, income, and access to opportunities. It is a critical concept for understanding how class structure impacts people's lives and is influenced by factors like education, economic conditions, and systemic inequalities.
Social Networks: Social networks refer to the structures made up of individuals or organizations that are connected through various social relationships, such as friendships, family ties, and professional connections. These networks play a critical role in influencing behaviors, sharing resources, and mobilizing collective actions within communities. Understanding social networks helps reveal how information flows and how social movements gain traction, impacting social mobility and educational opportunities.
Social Stratification: Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on various factors such as wealth, power, education, and social status. This system creates inequalities that affect people's life chances, access to resources, and overall social mobility. The structure of social stratification can be influenced by factors like class distinctions, race, gender, and economic disparities, leading to significant impacts on health outcomes, opportunities for advancement, and experiences of privilege or discrimination.
Structural Mobility: Structural mobility refers to the changes in social status or class that result from shifts in the broader economic or social structure, rather than individual actions or choices. This concept highlights how factors like economic growth, technological advances, and changes in labor markets can create opportunities or barriers for different groups, influencing the overall distribution of wealth and social standing in society.
Systemic inequality: Systemic inequality refers to the entrenched and institutionalized disparities in access to resources, opportunities, and rights across different social groups, particularly affecting marginalized communities. This concept highlights how policies, practices, and cultural norms create and perpetuate inequalities in areas like wealth, education, health care, and justice.
Upward mobility: Upward mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to move up the social ladder, typically achieving a higher socioeconomic status than they were born into. This concept is often linked to the idea of the American Dream, where success and prosperity are attainable through hard work, education, and determination. Upward mobility highlights the importance of equal opportunity and access to resources that can facilitate personal and economic advancement.
William Julius Wilson: William Julius Wilson is a prominent American sociologist known for his influential work on urban poverty, race, and social policy. His research emphasizes the structural factors that contribute to economic inequality and the racial wealth gap, highlighting how systemic issues affect social mobility and access to education. His ideas challenge traditional views of poverty by linking it to broader societal dynamics, particularly in relation to race and gender.
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