Glossary

Gender and work intersect in complex ways, shaping opportunities and experiences in the workplace. , pay gaps, and gendered expectations create barriers for women's advancement and equality. These issues are deeply rooted in societal norms and structures.

Addressing workplace gender inequality requires multifaceted strategies. Legislation, organizational initiatives, and individual actions can challenge discrimination and promote inclusivity. Work-life balance policies, mentorship programs, and education campaigns are key tools for fostering gender equality in professional settings.

Gender segregation in occupations

  • Gender segregation in occupations refers to the concentration of men and women in different types of jobs and industries
  • This segregation can be horizontal (across different occupations) or vertical (within the same occupation but at different levels of authority and pay)
  • Occupational gender segregation is a persistent feature of the labor market and contributes to gender inequalities in pay, status, and opportunities

Pay gaps between genders

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  • Women, on average, earn less than men for comparable work
  • The gender is the difference in average earnings between men and women, often expressed as a percentage of men's earnings
  • Factors contributing to the pay gap include occupational segregation, differences in work experience and education, discrimination, and the undervaluation of women's work
  • The pay gap is even wider for women of color, demonstrating the of gender and race in employment inequalities (Black women, Latina women)

"Pink-collar" jobs

  • "Pink-collar" jobs are occupations traditionally dominated by women, often in the service sector or caring professions (nursing, teaching, secretarial work)
  • These jobs are typically characterized by lower pay, less prestige, and fewer opportunities for advancement compared to male-dominated occupations
  • The term "pink-collar" highlights the gendered nature of these occupations and their association with feminine stereotypes of nurturing and caregiving
  • The concentration of women in reinforces occupational segregation and contributes to the gender pay gap

Glass ceiling effect

  • The is a metaphor for the invisible barriers that prevent women from advancing to top leadership positions in their careers
  • These barriers can include stereotypes, bias, and organizational cultures that favor men for high-level roles
  • The glass ceiling effect is evident in the underrepresentation of women in executive positions, boardrooms, and other positions of power (CEO, CFO)
  • Breaking through the glass ceiling requires challenging gender stereotypes, implementing , and providing mentorship and support for women's career advancement

Gendered expectations and stereotypes

  • shape perceptions of appropriate roles and behaviors for men and women in the workplace and society
  • These expectations are often based on traditional gender roles and can limit individuals' opportunities and choices
  • Challenging and dismantling gendered stereotypes is crucial for promoting gender equality and creating more inclusive workplaces

Societal gender roles

  • Gender roles are the social and behavioral norms that are considered appropriate for men and women in a given society
  • Traditional gender roles often assign men to be primary breadwinners and women to be primary caregivers and homemakers
  • These roles are socially constructed and can vary across cultures and time periods
  • Adherence to rigid gender roles can limit individuals' choices and potential, both in their personal lives and careers

Masculine vs feminine traits

  • Stereotypical masculine traits include assertiveness, competitiveness, and independence, while feminine traits include empathy, cooperation, and nurturance
  • These traits are often seen as binary and mutually exclusive, but individuals can embody a mix of both masculine and feminine qualities
  • Valuing and rewarding traditionally masculine traits in the workplace can disadvantage women and contribute to gender inequalities
  • Recognizing the value of both masculine and feminine traits and creating a more balanced and inclusive workplace culture can benefit all employees

Impact on career choices

  • Gendered expectations and stereotypes can influence individuals' career choices and aspirations
  • Women may be discouraged from pursuing male-dominated fields (STEM, finance) due to lack of role models, stereotypes about women's abilities, and hostile work environments
  • Men may face stigma or barriers when pursuing female-dominated occupations (nursing, early childhood education) due to stereotypes about masculinity and caregiving
  • Challenging gendered stereotypes and providing support and encouragement for individuals to pursue their interests can help reduce occupational segregation and promote gender equality in the workplace

Discrimination in the workplace

  • occurs when an employee is treated unfairly or disadvantaged due to their gender, race, age, or other protected characteristics
  • Gender discrimination can take many forms, including unequal pay, biased hiring and promotion practices, and sexual harassment
  • Addressing and preventing workplace discrimination is essential for creating a fair and inclusive work environment and promoting gender equality

Hiring and promotion biases

  • can disadvantage women and perpetuate gender inequalities in the workplace
  • These biases can be explicit or implicit and may be based on stereotypes about women's abilities, commitment, or leadership potential
  • Examples of biased practices include using gendered language in job postings, relying on informal networks for recruitment, and applying different standards for evaluating men and women's qualifications
  • Implementing objective hiring and promotion criteria, using diverse interview panels, and providing bias training for decision-makers can help reduce gender biases in these processes

Sexual harassment and assault

  • Sexual harassment is any unwelcome sexual behavior that creates a hostile or offensive work environment, while sexual assault involves physical sexual contact without consent
  • Women are disproportionately affected by in the workplace, which can have severe consequences for their mental health, job performance, and career advancement
  • Examples of sexual harassment include unwanted sexual advances, inappropriate comments or jokes, and quid pro quo harassment (demanding sexual favors in exchange for job benefits)
  • Employers have a legal and ethical responsibility to prevent and address sexual harassment and assault through clear policies, training, and support for victims

Pregnancy discrimination

  • involves treating an employee unfairly due to pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions
  • Examples of pregnancy discrimination include firing or demoting a pregnant employee, denying them job modifications or leave, and harassing them based on their pregnancy
  • Pregnancy discrimination reinforces gender inequalities by penalizing women for their reproductive roles and limiting their career opportunities
  • Laws such as the Pregnancy Discrimination Act in the United States prohibit pregnancy discrimination and require employers to provide reasonable accommodations for pregnant employees

Intersectionality of discrimination

  • Intersectionality recognizes that individuals can face multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination based on their various identities (gender, race, class, sexuality, disability)
  • Women of color, for example, may experience compounded discrimination due to the intersection of and racism in the workplace
  • Intersectionality highlights the need for an inclusive and nuanced approach to addressing workplace discrimination that accounts for the diverse experiences of marginalized groups
  • Strategies for promoting workplace equality must consider the intersectional nature of discrimination and develop targeted interventions to support individuals facing multiple barriers

Work-life balance challenges

  • Work-life balance refers to the ability to manage and prioritize both work and personal responsibilities effectively
  • Women often face greater challenges in achieving work-life balance due to gendered expectations around caregiving and domestic labor
  • Addressing work-life balance issues is crucial for promoting gender equality, supporting women's career advancement, and improving overall employee well-being and productivity

Unequal division of domestic labor

  • Women, on average, spend more time on unpaid domestic labor and caregiving than men, even when both partners are employed full-time
  • This unequal division of labor at home can limit women's ability to invest time and energy in their careers and lead to greater work-life conflict
  • Gendered expectations and socialization around housework and childcare contribute to this imbalance
  • Promoting a more equitable distribution of domestic responsibilities between partners and providing support for caregiving can help reduce the burden on women and improve work-life balance

Maternity leave policies

  • provide job-protected time off for mothers to recover from childbirth and bond with their newborns
  • Access to paid maternity leave varies widely across countries and employers, with some offering little or no paid leave
  • Inadequate or inflexible maternity leave policies can force women to choose between their careers and their family responsibilities, contributing to the "motherhood penalty" in wages and career advancement
  • Providing sufficient paid maternity leave and job protection can support women's labor force participation and promote gender equality in the workplace

Paternity leave policies

  • provide time off for fathers to bond with their newborns and share in caregiving responsibilities
  • Access to paternity leave is less common than maternity leave, and fathers often face stigma or career penalties for taking extended leave
  • Encouraging and normalizing paternity leave can help challenge gendered expectations around caregiving and promote a more equal division of labor at home
  • Providing equal access to parental leave for both mothers and fathers can support gender equality in the workplace and at home

Childcare accessibility and affordability

  • Access to affordable and quality childcare is essential for parents, especially mothers, to participate in the workforce and maintain work-life balance
  • The high cost and limited availability of childcare can be a significant barrier to employment for many women, particularly those in low-wage jobs
  • Lack of childcare support can lead to women reducing their work hours, taking career breaks, or leaving the workforce entirely, exacerbating gender inequalities in the labor market
  • Investing in accessible and affordable childcare infrastructure and providing childcare subsidies or benefits can help support working parents and promote gender equality in the workplace

Feminist perspectives on work

  • Feminist perspectives on work analyze the gendered nature of employment and the ways in which work intersects with other systems of oppression
  • These perspectives challenge traditional economic theories that assume a gender-neutral worker and highlight the structural barriers and inequalities faced by women in the workplace
  • Feminist approaches to work advocate for policies and practices that promote gender equality, value women's contributions, and challenge patriarchal norms and structures

Liberal vs radical feminism

  • focuses on achieving gender equality within existing social, political, and economic structures, emphasizing equal rights and opportunities for women
  • In the context of work, liberal feminists advocate for policies such as equal pay, anti-discrimination laws, and affirmative action to level the playing field for women
  • , in contrast, sees gender inequality as rooted in patriarchal power structures and argues for a fundamental transformation of society
  • Radical feminists critique the gendered division of labor, the undervaluation of women's work, and the ways in which capitalism and patriarchy intersect to exploit women's labor

Marxist feminist critique

  • Marxist feminism analyzes the relationship between gender oppression and class exploitation under capitalism
  • Marxist feminists argue that women's unpaid domestic labor and reproductive work is essential for the maintenance of the capitalist system, as it reproduces the labor force and subsidizes the cost of labor
  • They critique the gendered division of labor and the devaluation of women's work, both paid and unpaid
  • Marxist feminists advocate for the socialization of domestic work, the recognition of reproductive labor as valuable work, and the transformation of economic relations to eliminate both gender and class oppression

Postmodern feminist analysis

  • Postmodern feminism challenges the notion of a universal female experience and emphasizes the diversity and fluidity of gender identities and experiences
  • In the context of work, postmodern feminists analyze how gendered norms and expectations are constructed and performed in the workplace, and how these norms intersect with other systems of power and identity
  • They critique the binary and essentialist understanding of gender and highlight the ways in which individuals can resist and subvert gendered expectations in their work lives
  • Postmodern feminists advocate for the recognition and valuation of diverse experiences and identities in the workplace, and for the creation of more inclusive and equitable work environments

Strategies for gender equality

  • Achieving gender equality in the workplace requires a multi-faceted approach that addresses the structural, cultural, and individual barriers faced by women
  • Strategies for promoting gender equality include policy interventions, organizational initiatives, and individual actions to challenge gender stereotypes and discrimination
  • Effective strategies must be intersectional, addressing the diverse experiences and needs of women across different social identities and contexts

Legislation and policies

  • at the national and international levels can provide a framework for promoting gender equality in the workplace
  • Examples include equal pay laws, anti-discrimination legislation, parental leave policies, and quotas for women's representation in leadership positions
  • Effective implementation and enforcement of these policies is crucial for their impact on gender equality
  • Policies should be designed with input from diverse stakeholders and should consider the intersectional experiences of women in the workplace

Diversity and inclusion initiatives

  • Organizational diversity and inclusion initiatives aim to create more equitable and inclusive work environments for women and other underrepresented groups
  • These initiatives can include diversity training, mentorship programs, employee resource groups, and targeted recruitment and retention efforts
  • Effective diversity and inclusion initiatives require leadership commitment, adequate resources, and ongoing evaluation and improvement
  • Initiatives should address the systemic barriers and biases that perpetuate gender inequalities, rather than placing the burden of change on individual women

Mentorship and networking

  • opportunities can provide valuable support and guidance for women navigating their careers and facing gender-based barriers
  • Mentorship programs can connect women with experienced professionals who can offer advice, sponsorship, and advocacy
  • Networking events and platforms can help women build professional relationships, share experiences, and access job opportunities
  • Mentorship and networking initiatives should be inclusive and address the specific needs and challenges faced by women from diverse backgrounds

Education and awareness campaigns

  • can help challenge gender stereotypes, promote understanding of gender inequalities, and encourage individual and collective action for change
  • These campaigns can target various audiences, including employees, managers, policymakers, and the general public
  • Examples include workshops on , public awareness campaigns about the gender pay gap, and educational programs for youth on gender equality
  • Effective education and awareness campaigns should be evidence-based, culturally sensitive, and designed to inspire meaningful change in attitudes and behaviors

Key Terms to Review (39)

Betty Friedan: Betty Friedan was an American feminist writer and activist, best known for her groundbreaking book 'The Feminine Mystique' published in 1963, which challenged traditional gender roles and sparked the second wave of feminism in the United States. Her work highlighted the dissatisfaction of many women with the limited roles of housewives and encouraged women to seek fulfillment beyond domesticity, influencing debates on gender and work, equality, and discrimination in the workplace.
Childcare accessibility and affordability: Childcare accessibility and affordability refer to the availability of childcare services and the financial feasibility of accessing those services for families. This concept is crucial in understanding how parents, especially working mothers, navigate their employment options while ensuring quality care for their children. When childcare is both accessible and affordable, it supports greater workforce participation, particularly among women, thereby influencing economic stability and gender equity in the workplace.
Discrimination in the workplace: Discrimination in the workplace refers to unfair or prejudicial treatment of employees based on characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, or disability. This issue can manifest in various forms, including unequal pay, hiring practices, promotions, and workplace culture, ultimately affecting both employee morale and organizational effectiveness.
Diversity and inclusion initiatives: Diversity and inclusion initiatives are structured efforts within organizations aimed at promoting a diverse workforce and creating an inclusive environment where all employees feel valued and respected. These initiatives are designed to address disparities related to race, gender, age, sexual orientation, disability, and other aspects of identity, and they play a crucial role in transforming workplace culture and improving overall performance.
Education and awareness campaigns: Education and awareness campaigns are organized efforts aimed at informing and raising consciousness about specific issues, particularly concerning social problems, rights, and opportunities. These campaigns play a critical role in challenging stereotypes, promoting equity, and fostering understanding related to gender and work dynamics. They often utilize various media and community engagement strategies to reach diverse audiences, aiming to influence attitudes and behaviors.
Equal pay legislation: Equal pay legislation refers to laws designed to eliminate wage discrimination based on gender, ensuring that individuals receive equal pay for equal work. These laws aim to address the persistent gender wage gap by mandating that men and women be compensated equally for performing jobs that require similar skills, effort, and responsibility. This legal framework is crucial in promoting fairness in the workplace and advancing gender equality.
Feminist perspective: The feminist perspective is a theoretical framework that seeks to understand and address the inequalities and injustices faced by women and marginalized genders in society. This perspective emphasizes the importance of gender as a central factor in analyzing social structures, power dynamics, and cultural norms, advocating for social change to promote equality and justice for all genders.
Feminization of labor: The feminization of labor refers to the increasing participation of women in the workforce, particularly in sectors that were traditionally dominated by men. This phenomenon highlights the shift in labor dynamics and gender roles, where women are increasingly filling positions that were once seen as male-oriented, often leading to changes in workplace culture and economic structures.
Gender bias: Gender bias refers to the preferential treatment or discrimination against individuals based on their gender, often leading to unequal opportunities and outcomes in various areas of life. This bias manifests in societal structures and personal attitudes, influencing how men and women are perceived and treated in the workplace, educational settings, and media representations. Understanding gender bias is crucial for addressing systemic inequalities that persist across different domains of life.
Gender role theory: Gender role theory is a social concept that explains how societal expectations shape the behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities assigned to individuals based on their gender. This theory highlights that gender roles are not biologically inherent but socially constructed, influencing various aspects of life including family dynamics, career choices, and interpersonal relationships. Understanding gender role theory helps to analyze how these roles are perpetuated through cultural norms and institutional practices.
Gendered expectations and stereotypes: Gendered expectations and stereotypes refer to the preconceived notions and beliefs about the roles, behaviors, and characteristics that society associates with individuals based on their gender. These societal norms often dictate how men and women should act, what jobs they should hold, and the qualities they should exhibit, leading to discrimination and inequality in various fields, including the workplace.
Glass ceiling: The glass ceiling refers to an invisible barrier that prevents women and minorities from advancing to upper-level positions in organizations and industries, despite their qualifications and achievements. This concept highlights systemic issues in workplaces that perpetuate gender and racial inequalities, making it difficult for marginalized groups to achieve equal representation in leadership roles.
Global care chain: The global care chain refers to a transnational network of people involved in providing care services, particularly highlighting how care work is often outsourced from wealthier nations to poorer ones. This phenomenon usually involves women migrating from developing countries to provide domestic and caregiving services in developed countries, raising questions about labor, gender roles, and the social implications of such dynamics. The global care chain emphasizes the interconnections between different countries and the inequalities that shape the flow of labor and care responsibilities.
Hiring and promotion biases: Hiring and promotion biases refer to the unfair preferences or prejudices that influence decisions related to recruiting and advancing employees in the workplace. These biases can manifest in various ways, including favoritism towards certain demographics based on gender, race, or other characteristics, ultimately affecting the diversity and equality of the workforce. The presence of these biases can lead to unequal opportunities and reinforce existing stereotypes within organizations.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various social identities such as race, gender, sexuality, class, and ability intersect and create overlapping systems of discrimination or privilege. It highlights the complexity of individuals' experiences and challenges the notion that social categories operate independently.
Judith Butler: Judith Butler is a prominent philosopher and gender theorist known for her work on gender performativity, which suggests that gender is not an innate quality but rather a set of actions and behaviors that individuals perform based on societal expectations. This perspective challenges traditional views of gender and has far-reaching implications for understanding identity, power dynamics, and the politics of gender and sexuality.
Legislation and Policies: Legislation refers to laws enacted by a governing body, while policies are the guiding principles or rules that direct decision-making and action within organizations or governments. In the context of gender and work, legislation and policies play a crucial role in shaping workplace equality, addressing issues such as discrimination, pay equity, and family leave. Together, they create a framework that impacts the rights and opportunities available to individuals based on their gender in various employment settings.
Liberal feminism: Liberal feminism is a branch of feminist thought that emphasizes the importance of individual rights, equal opportunities, and social justice within a framework of existing political and economic systems. It seeks to promote gender equality through reforms in laws, policies, and institutions rather than advocating for radical societal change. This approach focuses on achieving equal rights and access for women, particularly in areas such as education, employment, and reproductive rights.
Marxist feminist critique: Marxist feminist critique is an analytical framework that examines the intersection of capitalism, patriarchy, and gender inequality, emphasizing how economic systems contribute to women's oppression. This perspective critiques both traditional Marxism, which often overlooks gender issues, and mainstream feminism, which may neglect the role of economic structures in perpetuating women's subordination. By analyzing the socio-economic conditions that shape women's experiences, this critique aims to uncover the systemic roots of gender inequality in the workplace and society at large.
Masculine vs feminine traits: Masculine and feminine traits refer to the characteristics, behaviors, and roles that societies typically associate with men and women. These traits are often socially constructed, where masculine traits may include assertiveness, competitiveness, and independence, while feminine traits are usually linked to nurturing, empathy, and cooperation. Understanding these traits helps to analyze how gender roles shape professional environments and influence work dynamics.
Maternal wall: The maternal wall refers to the barriers and biases that mothers face in the workplace due to societal perceptions and stereotypes about their abilities and commitments. This concept highlights how women, especially those with children, are often unfairly judged as less competent or dedicated compared to their male counterparts or women without children, leading to negative impacts on their careers, promotions, and job security.
Maternity leave policies: Maternity leave policies are regulations that provide expectant mothers with the right to take time off from work to give birth and care for their newborn child, without risking their job security. These policies vary significantly across countries and organizations, influencing gender equality in the workplace by allowing mothers to balance their professional responsibilities with family needs.
Mentorship and networking: Mentorship and networking refer to the processes through which individuals gain guidance, support, and connections within their professional or academic fields. Mentorship involves a more experienced person offering advice and sharing knowledge with someone less experienced, while networking focuses on building relationships with a broad range of contacts that can facilitate opportunities and collaboration. Together, these concepts play a vital role in personal and professional development, especially in navigating gender-related challenges in the workplace.
Occupational Segregation: Occupational segregation refers to the uneven distribution of different demographic groups across various occupations, often leading to a concentration of specific groups in particular job sectors. This phenomenon is typically influenced by factors such as gender, race, education, and social norms, resulting in certain jobs being dominated by either men or women, or by specific racial or ethnic groups. This segregation can have significant implications for earnings, career advancement, and overall economic equality.
Paternity leave policies: Paternity leave policies are regulations that provide fathers with the right to take time off work following the birth or adoption of a child. These policies can vary significantly in length, pay, and eligibility requirements across different countries and companies, impacting family dynamics and gender equality in the workplace.
Pay gap: The pay gap refers to the disparity in earnings between different groups, most commonly between men and women, in the workforce. This term highlights not only the differences in wages but also reflects broader issues of inequality and discrimination in the labor market, impacting economic security and opportunities for advancement.
Pink-collar jobs: Pink-collar jobs refer to occupations that are traditionally associated with women and often involve administrative, clerical, or service-oriented tasks. These jobs typically require interpersonal skills and may include roles such as secretaries, nurses, and teachers. The term highlights the gendered nature of work and the ongoing issues related to gender inequality in the workforce.
Postmodern feminist analysis: Postmodern feminist analysis is an approach that critiques traditional feminist theories by emphasizing the complexity and fluidity of gender, race, and identity in a postmodern context. This perspective challenges the idea of a singular, universal experience of womanhood and instead highlights the intersections of various identities and social positions, revealing how power dynamics operate in different ways across diverse contexts.
Pregnancy discrimination: Pregnancy discrimination refers to treating a woman unfavorably because of her pregnancy, childbirth, or a medical condition related to pregnancy. This form of discrimination can manifest in various ways, including unfair treatment in hiring, firing, promotions, job assignments, or benefits. It is an issue deeply intertwined with gender and work, highlighting the challenges women face in balancing their professional and personal lives during and after pregnancy.
Radical feminism: Radical feminism is a branch of feminist theory that seeks to address the root causes of women's oppression, arguing that gender inequality is fundamentally linked to patriarchy, a system that privileges men and subjugates women. It emphasizes the need for profound societal change rather than just reforms within existing structures. Radical feminists advocate for the dismantling of patriarchal institutions, challenging norms related to gender, sexuality, and power dynamics within society.
Second shift: The second shift refers to the additional unpaid labor that many individuals, particularly women, take on after their formal workday ends. This includes household chores, childcare, and other family responsibilities that often fall disproportionately on women, reinforcing traditional gender roles within the home and impacting their participation in the workforce.
Sexism: Sexism is a belief that one gender is inherently superior to another, leading to discrimination and prejudice based on a person's sex or gender. This concept often manifests in societal norms, behaviors, and institutional practices that privilege one gender over others, affecting areas like race, sexuality, work, body image, and social movements.
Sexual harassment and assault: Sexual harassment and assault refer to unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment. This issue is particularly significant in workplaces, where power dynamics and gender inequality can exacerbate the impact of such behaviors on individuals, often leading to detrimental effects on their professional lives and mental health.
Social constructionism: Social constructionism is a theory that explores how social phenomena, including norms, values, and identities, are created through social interactions and shared beliefs. It emphasizes that many aspects of our reality, including gender roles and societal expectations, are not inherently natural but rather constructed through cultural and historical contexts.
Societal gender roles: Societal gender roles refer to the expectations and norms that dictate how individuals should behave, based on their perceived gender. These roles are influenced by cultural, social, and historical contexts, shaping everything from career choices to family dynamics. Understanding societal gender roles helps reveal the inequalities and biases that can exist in the workplace and other areas of life.
Unequal division of domestic labor: The unequal division of domestic labor refers to the disparity in household responsibilities and tasks between individuals, often based on gender. Traditionally, women have been expected to perform a greater share of chores, childcare, and other domestic duties, while men may contribute less or prioritize work outside the home. This division can lead to imbalances in power dynamics within relationships and reflects broader societal norms surrounding gender roles.
Women in leadership: Women in leadership refers to the representation and participation of women in positions of authority and decision-making roles across various sectors, including business, politics, and community organizations. This term highlights the significance of gender equality in leadership roles and the impact it has on organizational culture, policy-making, and societal change. Increasing women's presence in leadership is crucial for promoting diverse perspectives and addressing issues related to gender inequality and discrimination in the workplace.
Women's liberation movement: The women's liberation movement was a social and political movement that emerged in the 1960s and aimed to achieve equality for women in various aspects of life, including legal rights, education, employment, and reproductive rights. It sought to challenge and change the societal norms and structures that perpetuated gender inequality, advocating for women's rights as human rights.
Work-life balance challenges: Work-life balance challenges refer to the difficulties individuals face in managing the demands of their professional and personal lives in a way that promotes overall well-being and satisfaction. These challenges often arise from competing responsibilities, such as work obligations, family commitments, and personal interests, which can create stress and affect mental health. Gender roles and expectations frequently play a significant role in these challenges, as traditional views often assign disproportionate domestic responsibilities to women.
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