🤕Torts Unit 9 – Negligence – Special Duties and Limitations

What's Negligence Again?

• Negligence occurs when a person fails to exercise reasonable care, resulting in harm or injury to another
• Four key elements must be proven: duty, breach, causation, and damages
• Duty of care exists when the law recognizes a relationship between the defendant and plaintiff requiring the defendant to act with a certain standard of care
• Breach of duty happens when the defendant's conduct falls below the standard of care a reasonable person would observe in the same situation
• Causation requires showing the defendant's negligence was the actual and proximate cause of the plaintiff's injury or harm
• Damages refer to the losses suffered by the plaintiff due to the defendant's negligent conduct, which can include medical expenses, lost wages, pain and suffering

Special Duties: Who Owes What?

• Certain relationships or circumstances create a heightened duty of care beyond the standard reasonable person
• Common carriers (buses, trains, airlines) owe the highest duty of care to ensure passenger safety
  • Must use utmost care and diligence to avoid even the slightest negligence
• Innkeepers have a special duty to protect guests from foreseeable harm on the premises
• Landowners owe varying duties depending on the visitor's status (invitee, licensee, trespasser)
  • Invitees are owed the highest duty, including warning of known dangers and maintaining safe conditions
• Professionals (doctors, lawyers, accountants) must adhere to the standard of care of their profession
• Parents have a duty to supervise and control their minor children to prevent foreseeable harm to others

Duty of Care: The Exceptions

• No general duty to rescue or assist others in peril, unless a special relationship exists (parent-child, common carrier-passenger)
• No duty to control the conduct of third parties, barring a special relationship (employer-employee) or if the defendant's own conduct creates the risk
• The "fireman's rule" bars firefighters and police officers from suing for injuries sustained in the course of their duties
  • Based on assumption of risk and public policy considerations
• Statutory exceptions may impose specific duties, such as "Good Samaritan" laws protecting those who provide emergency aid
• The "economic loss rule" generally precludes recovery for purely economic harm without accompanying physical damage or injury
• Courts may find no duty exists due to public policy concerns, such as preventing unlimited or disproportionate liability

Causation: Tricky Scenarios

• "But-for" causation: the injury would not have occurred but for the defendant's negligence
  • Necessary condition, but may not be sufficient alone
• Proximate cause: the defendant's negligence must be closely enough related to the injury to justify imposing liability
  • Foreseeability is a key factor in determining proximate cause
• Intervening causes may break the causal chain if they are unforeseeable or extraordinary
  • Superseding causes are intervening forces that completely replace the defendant's negligence as the proximate cause
• Multiple sufficient causes: when two or more independent negligent acts could each have caused the injury alone (two fires merging)
  • Courts may apply the "substantial factor" test or find joint and several liability
• Lost chance doctrine: allows recovery for the loss of a chance at survival or better outcome, even if the original odds were less than 50%
• Res ipsa loquitur ("the thing speaks for itself") allows an inference of negligence without direct proof when the accident is of a type that normally occurs only due to negligence and the defendant had exclusive control

Damages: When Things Get Complicated

• Compensatory damages aim to restore the plaintiff to their pre-injury position
  • Economic damages include medical expenses, lost wages, and property damage
  • Non-economic damages encompass pain and suffering, emotional distress, and loss of enjoyment of life
• Punitive damages may be awarded to punish and deter particularly egregious or reckless conduct
  • Generally require a higher standard of proof (clear and convincing evidence)
• Damages for future losses (ongoing medical care, reduced earning capacity) must be proven with reasonable certainty
  • Often requires expert testimony and complex calculations
• Collateral source rule: plaintiffs can recover full damages even if they received compensation from other sources (insurance, gifts)
• Mitigation of damages: plaintiffs have a duty to take reasonable steps to minimize their losses
  • Failure to mitigate can reduce the recoverable damages
• Damages caps: some jurisdictions limit non-economic or punitive damages by statute

Defenses: How to Dodge Liability

• Contributory negligence: historically a complete bar to recovery if the plaintiff's own negligence contributed to the injury
  • Harsh rule, now abandoned in most jurisdictions
• Comparative negligence: apportions fault between the plaintiff and defendant
  • Pure comparative negligence allows the plaintiff to recover even if they were more at fault than the defendant
  • Modified comparative negligence bars recovery if the plaintiff's fault exceeds a certain threshold (50% or 51%)
• Assumption of risk: plaintiff voluntarily and knowingly encountered a known danger
  • Express assumption of risk through written waivers or contracts
  • Implied assumption of risk based on the plaintiff's conduct and awareness
• Statute of limitations: time limit for filing a negligence claim, varies by jurisdiction and type of case
  • Discovery rule may delay the start of the limitations period until the plaintiff knew or should have known of the injury and its cause
• Immunity defenses: some defendants are shielded from liability due to their status or role
  • Sovereign immunity for governmental entities, qualified immunity for public officials
  • Charitable immunity for non-profit organizations, varying by jurisdiction

Real-World Examples: Negligence in Action

• Slip and fall cases: property owners failing to address hazardous conditions (wet floors, icy sidewalks)
  • Key issues: notice of the condition, reasonableness of the owner's actions
• Medical malpractice: healthcare providers deviating from the accepted standard of care
  • Common examples: misdiagnosis, surgical errors, medication mistakes
• Product liability: manufacturers or sellers putting defective or unreasonably dangerous products on the market
  • Design defects, manufacturing defects, failure to warn
• Distracted driving: drivers causing accidents due to texting, eating, or other inattentive behavior
  • Evolving standards as technology advances and laws adapt
• Professional negligence: attorneys missing filing deadlines, accountants making errors on tax returns
  • Judged against the standard of care for the specific profession
• Negligent security: businesses failing to provide adequate safety measures in high-crime areas
  • Foreseeability of criminal activity is a central factor

Key Takeaways: Don't Forget These!

• Negligence requires duty, breach, causation, and damages – all four elements must be proven
• Special relationships and circumstances can create heightened duties of care
• Exceptions to the duty of care include no general duty to rescue, the fireman's rule, and the economic loss rule
• Causation involves both but-for cause and proximate cause, with foreseeability as a key factor
• Damages can be economic, non-economic, or punitive, and may involve complex calculations for future losses
• Defenses to negligence include comparative negligence, assumption of risk, statutes of limitations, and immunities
• Negligence principles apply across a wide range of real-world scenarios, from slip and falls to professional malpractice
• Always consider the specific facts and circumstances of each case, as well as the applicable jurisdiction's laws and precedents