🔥Thermodynamics I Unit 14 – Gas–Vapor Mixtures and Air–Conditioning

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Gas-vapor mixtures consist of a mixture of dry air and water vapor, which is essential for understanding air-conditioning processes
• Dry air is a mixture of various gases, primarily nitrogen and oxygen, that does not contain any water vapor
• Water vapor is the gaseous state of water and is an important component of air-conditioning processes
• Saturation is the state at which the air cannot hold any more water vapor at a given temperature and pressure
• Dew point temperature is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated with water vapor and condensation begins to occur
• Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage
• Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the gas-vapor mixture, typically expressed in grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air
  • Also known as humidity ratio or moisture content
• Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that represents the total heat content of a substance, including both sensible and latent heat

Properties of Gas-Vapor Mixtures

• Gas-vapor mixtures are characterized by their temperature, pressure, and composition, which determine their thermodynamic properties
• The ideal gas law ($PV = nRT$) can be used to approximate the behavior of gas-vapor mixtures, assuming the mixture behaves as an ideal gas
• Dalton's law of partial pressures states that the total pressure of a gas-vapor mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of its components
  • $P_{total} = P_{air} + P_{vapor}$
• The enthalpy of a gas-vapor mixture is the sum of the enthalpies of the dry air and water vapor components
  • $h_{mixture} = h_{air} + \omega h_{vapor}$, where $\omega$ is the specific humidity
• The specific volume of a gas-vapor mixture is the volume occupied by a unit mass of the mixture and can be calculated using the ideal gas law
• Adiabatic saturation is a process in which a gas-vapor mixture is cooled at constant pressure until it reaches saturation without any heat transfer to or from the surroundings
• The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a gas-vapor mixture reaches during adiabatic saturation and is an important parameter in air-conditioning processes
• The specific heat capacity of a gas-vapor mixture depends on its composition and can be calculated using the mass-weighted average of the specific heat capacities of its components

Psychrometric Charts and Their Use

• Psychrometric charts are graphical representations of the thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures, particularly air-water vapor mixtures
• The charts display the relationships between temperature, humidity, enthalpy, and other properties of the mixture
• The horizontal axis typically represents the dry-bulb temperature, which is the temperature of the mixture measured by a thermometer exposed to the air
• The vertical axis can represent various humidity measures, such as relative humidity, specific humidity, or humidity ratio
• Lines of constant relative humidity are curved and decrease from left to right, with 100% relative humidity representing the saturation curve
• Lines of constant specific humidity are straight and parallel to the dry-bulb temperature axis
• Lines of constant enthalpy are slightly curved and slope downward from left to right
• The dew point temperature can be determined by following a line of constant specific humidity until it intersects the saturation curve
• Psychrometric charts are used to analyze and design air-conditioning processes by plotting the initial and final states of the air and determining the required energy inputs or outputs
  • Example: Heating and cooling processes can be visualized on the chart by drawing lines between the initial and final states of the air

Humidity and Moisture Content

• Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in a gas-vapor mixture, such as air
• Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor per unit volume of the mixture, typically expressed in grams per cubic meter
• Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the actual water vapor pressure to the saturation water vapor pressure at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage
  • $RH = \frac{P_{vapor}}{P_{sat}} \times 100\%$
• Specific humidity, also known as humidity ratio, is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in the mixture
  • $\omega = \frac{m_{vapor}}{m_{air}}$, typically expressed in grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air
• Moisture content is another term for specific humidity and is often used in the context of materials and their ability to absorb or release moisture
• The relationship between temperature and humidity is important in air-conditioning processes, as changes in temperature affect the moisture-holding capacity of the air
  • As temperature increases, the air can hold more moisture before reaching saturation
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of a gas-vapor mixture falls below its dew point temperature, causing water vapor to condense into liquid water
• Latent heat is the energy released or absorbed during phase changes, such as condensation or evaporation, without a change in temperature

Heating and Cooling Processes

• Heating and cooling processes in air-conditioning involve changing the temperature and humidity of the air to achieve desired indoor conditions
• Sensible heating is the process of increasing the dry-bulb temperature of the air without changing its specific humidity
  • This process follows a line of constant specific humidity on the psychrometric chart
• Sensible cooling is the process of decreasing the dry-bulb temperature of the air without changing its specific humidity
  • This process also follows a line of constant specific humidity on the psychrometric chart
• Latent heating is the process of increasing the specific humidity of the air without changing its dry-bulb temperature
  • This process follows a line of constant dry-bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart
• Latent cooling is the process of decreasing the specific humidity of the air without changing its dry-bulb temperature
  • This process also follows a line of constant dry-bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart
• Adiabatic mixing is the process of combining two streams of air with different properties without any heat transfer to or from the surroundings
  • The resulting mixture will have properties that lie on a straight line connecting the initial states of the two streams on the psychrometric chart
• Evaporative cooling is a process in which the air is cooled by the evaporation of water, resulting in a decrease in dry-bulb temperature and an increase in specific humidity
  • This process follows a line of constant wet-bulb temperature on the psychrometric chart
• Dehumidification is the process of removing moisture from the air, which can be achieved by cooling the air below its dew point temperature and then reheating it to the desired dry-bulb temperature

Air-Conditioning Systems and Components

• Air-conditioning systems are designed to control the temperature, humidity, and quality of the air in a space to provide comfort and maintain indoor air quality
• The main components of an air-conditioning system include the compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator
  • The compressor raises the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant vapor
  • The condenser releases heat from the refrigerant to the outside environment, causing the refrigerant to condense into a liquid
  • The expansion valve reduces the pressure and temperature of the liquid refrigerant before it enters the evaporator
  • The evaporator absorbs heat from the indoor air, causing the refrigerant to evaporate and cool the air
• Air handling units (AHUs) are used to distribute the conditioned air throughout the building and typically include fans, filters, heating and cooling coils, and humidifiers or dehumidifiers
• Ductwork is used to transport the conditioned air from the AHU to the various zones or rooms in the building
• Thermostats and humidity sensors are used to monitor and control the temperature and humidity levels in the conditioned space
• Economizers are used to take advantage of favorable outdoor conditions by bringing in outside air for cooling instead of using mechanical refrigeration
• Heat recovery systems, such as heat wheels or heat pipes, are used to transfer heat between the exhaust air and the incoming fresh air to improve energy efficiency

Energy Efficiency in HVAC

• Energy efficiency in heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems is important for reducing energy consumption and operating costs
• The coefficient of performance (COP) is a measure of the efficiency of a refrigeration or heat pump system, defined as the ratio of the useful cooling or heating output to the work input
  • $COP_{cooling} = \frac{Q_{cooling}}{W_{input}}$ and $COP_{heating} = \frac{Q_{heating}}{W_{input}}$
• The seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) is a measure of the overall efficiency of an air-conditioning system over an entire cooling season
• The heating seasonal performance factor (HSPF) is a measure of the overall efficiency of a heat pump system over an entire heating season
• Variable air volume (VAV) systems adjust the flow rate of conditioned air to each zone based on the cooling or heating load, which can save energy compared to constant volume systems
• Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) adjusts the amount of outside air brought into the building based on occupancy levels, which can reduce energy consumption during periods of low occupancy
• Building automation systems (BAS) can optimize the operation of HVAC systems by monitoring and controlling various components based on factors such as occupancy, weather conditions, and energy prices
• Regular maintenance, such as cleaning or replacing filters, can help maintain the efficiency and performance of HVAC systems over time

Real-World Applications and Examples

• Office buildings often use variable air volume (VAV) systems to provide comfortable indoor conditions while minimizing energy consumption
  • VAV systems deliver conditioned air at varying flow rates to different zones based on their cooling or heating needs
• Data centers require precise control of temperature and humidity to ensure the reliable operation of servers and other equipment
  • Air-conditioning systems in data centers often use economizers to take advantage of cool outside air when available, reducing the need for mechanical cooling
• Hospitals and healthcare facilities have strict requirements for indoor air quality and infection control
  • HVAC systems in these facilities may include high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) to remove contaminants and pathogens from the air
• Residential air-conditioning systems, such as split systems or packaged units, are designed to provide comfort cooling and dehumidification for homes
  • These systems typically have lower capacities and are designed for ease of installation and maintenance
• Automotive air-conditioning systems use similar principles to building HVAC systems but are designed to operate in the unique environment of a vehicle
  • These systems must be compact, lightweight, and able to withstand vibrations and temperature extremes
• Industrial processes, such as manufacturing or food processing, may require specialized air-conditioning systems to control temperature, humidity, and air quality
  • These systems may need to handle large cooling loads, remove contaminants, or maintain strict environmental conditions for product quality and safety
• Sustainable building designs often incorporate passive cooling strategies, such as natural ventilation, shading, and green roofs, to reduce the need for mechanical air-conditioning
  • These strategies can be combined with high-efficiency HVAC systems and renewable energy sources to minimize the environmental impact of the building