Glossary

, a 19th-century critique of , provides a framework for understanding international relations through and economic determinism. Shaped by the industrial revolution and political upheavals, Marx's ideas were influenced by Hegel, Feuerbach, and classical political economy.

forms the philosophical foundation, emphasizing material conditions in shaping society. applies this to human history, viewing it as driven by changes in production and class struggles. The mode of production determines social, political, and intellectual life.

Origins of classical Marxism

  • Classical Marxism emerged in the 19th century as a critique of capitalism and a theory of social change, providing a foundational framework for understanding international relations through the lens of class struggle and economic determinism
  • Marx's ideas were shaped by the industrial revolution and the rise of the working class, as well as by the political upheavals of his time, such as the revolutions of 1848

Influences on Marx's thought

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  • Hegel's dialectical method influenced Marx's understanding of historical change as a process driven by contradictions and conflict
  • Feuerbach's materialism inspired Marx to focus on the material conditions of human existence rather than abstract ideas
  • Classical political economy, particularly the works of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, provided Marx with a starting point for his critique of capitalism
  • French and the utopian socialist thinkers of his time, such as Fourier and Saint-Simon, influenced Marx's vision of a future communist society

Collaboration with Engels

  • Marx's long-standing collaboration with was crucial to the development of classical Marxism
  • Engels contributed to many of Marx's works, including The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867)
  • Together, Marx and Engels laid the foundations for a comprehensive theory of society, economics, and politics that would have a profound impact on international relations

Dialectical materialism

  • Dialectical materialism is the philosophical foundation of classical Marxism, combining Hegel's dialectical method with a materialist understanding of reality
  • It emphasizes the primacy of material conditions in shaping human society and consciousness, rather than ideas or spiritual factors

Historical materialism

  • Historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to the study of human history
  • It views history as a process of development driven by changes in the material conditions of production and the resulting class struggles
  • According to historical materialism, the mode of production determines the social, political, and intellectual life of a society

Modes of production

  • The mode of production refers to the way in which a society organizes the production and distribution of goods and services
  • Marx identified several modes of production throughout history, including primitive , slavery, feudalism, and capitalism
  • Each mode of production is characterized by specific relations of production (class relations) and forces of production (technology and labor)

Base vs superstructure

  • The base, or economic structure, of a society consists of the relations and forces of production, which form the foundation for the superstructure
  • The superstructure includes the political, legal, and ideological institutions and beliefs that arise from and reinforce the economic base
  • Changes in the base, such as the development of new productive forces, can lead to changes in the superstructure, as well as class conflict and social revolution

Class struggle as driving force

  • Class struggle is the central driving force of historical change in classical Marxism
  • It arises from the contradictions between the interests of different social classes, which are determined by their position in the relations of production

Bourgeoisie vs proletariat

  • In capitalist society, the main class struggle is between the (the owners of the means of production) and the (the working class who sell their labor)
  • The bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labor, leading to an antagonistic relationship between the two classes

Alienation and exploitation

  • refers to the estrangement of workers from the products of their labor, the production process, their fellow workers, and their own human potential under capitalism
  • occurs when the bourgeoisie appropriates the surplus value created by the proletariat's labor, leading to the accumulation of capital and the impoverishment of the working class

Revolution and dictatorship of proletariat

  • As class antagonisms intensify, Marx believed that the proletariat would ultimately rise up in revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist society
  • The dictatorship of the proletariat refers to the transitional period following the revolution, during which the working class would exercise political power to suppress counter-revolutionary forces and lay the foundations for a classless, communist society

Critique of capitalism

  • Marx's critique of capitalism is central to classical Marxism and has significant implications for understanding international relations
  • He argued that capitalism is inherently exploitative, crisis-prone, and ultimately unsustainable

Labor theory of value

  • The holds that the value of a commodity is determined by the socially necessary labor time required to produce it
  • Marx used this theory to explain how capitalists extract surplus value from workers, as the value of labor power (wages) is less than the value created by workers during the production process

Commodity fetishism

  • refers to the way in which social relationships between people in capitalist society are obscured by the relationships between commodities (goods and services) in the market
  • This leads to the perception of economic relations as natural and inevitable, rather than as historically specific and socially constructed

Contradictions and crisis tendencies

  • Marx identified several contradictions and crisis tendencies inherent in capitalism, such as the tendency for the rate of profit to fall, overproduction, and the
  • These contradictions periodically lead to economic crises, which Marx saw as opportunities for revolutionary change and the eventual collapse of the capitalist system

Imperialism as highest stage

  • Lenin's theory of , built upon Marx's insights, argues that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism
  • It is characterized by the concentration and centralization of capital, the global expansion of capitalist powers, and inter-imperialist rivalry

Concentration and centralization of capital

  • As capitalism develops, there is a tendency for capital to become concentrated in fewer and larger firms through mergers, acquisitions, and the elimination of competitors
  • Centralization of capital refers to the increasing control of capital by financial institutions, such as banks and investment firms, which leads to the formation of monopolies and oligopolies

Global expansion and colonialism

  • Imperialism involves the global expansion of capitalist powers in search of new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities
  • Colonialism, the direct political and economic control of foreign territories, is a key feature of imperialism, as it allows capitalist countries to exploit the resources and labor of subordinate nations

Inter-imperialist rivalry

  • As capitalist powers compete for global dominance, inter-imperialist rivalries emerge, leading to conflicts and wars
  • These rivalries are driven by the need to secure access to markets, resources, and spheres of influence, as well as to maintain the profitability of monopoly capital

Marxist theory of state

  • The Marxist theory of the state views the state as an instrument of class rule, serving the interests of the dominant economic class in society
  • This perspective challenges the notion of the state as a neutral arbiter of social conflicts and highlights its role in maintaining capitalist relations of production

State as instrument of class rule

  • In capitalist society, the state primarily serves the interests of the bourgeoisie by protecting private property rights, enforcing contracts, and suppressing working-class resistance
  • The state's monopoly on the legitimate use of force is used to maintain the existing social order and the dominance of the ruling class

Relative autonomy of state

  • While the state is ultimately determined by the economic base, it can have a degree of relative autonomy in its actions
  • This autonomy allows the state to mediate conflicts between different factions of the ruling class and to make concessions to subordinate classes in order to maintain social stability

Withering away of state

  • Marx and Engels argued that in a future communist society, the state would eventually "wither away" as class distinctions and the need for a repressive apparatus disappeared
  • This would involve the gradual transfer of state functions to the self-organized working class and the emergence of a classless, stateless society

Internationalism and world revolution

  • Classical Marxism emphasizes the international character of the working class and the need for a global socialist revolution to overcome capitalism
  • This internationalist perspective has important implications for understanding the dynamics of international relations and the potential for transnational solidarity

Proletarian internationalism

  • is the principle that the working class has no country and that workers of all nations should unite in their common struggle against capitalism
  • This idea challenges the nationalist divisions promoted by the ruling class and emphasizes the shared interests of workers across borders

Permanent revolution

  • Trotsky's theory of argues that in countries with a belated capitalist development, the bourgeoisie is too weak to carry out a democratic revolution, and that this task falls to the working class
  • The working class, in turn, must not only overthrow the old regime but also continue the revolution to establish a socialist society, while spreading the revolution internationally

Communism as end goal

  • The ultimate goal of classical Marxism is the establishment of a communist society, characterized by the abolition of private property, class distinctions, and the state
  • In a communist society, the free development of each individual would be the condition for the free development of all, and production would be organized to meet human needs rather than to generate private profit
  • Achieving communism requires a global revolution and the internationalization of the means of production, transcending the divisions and inequalities of the capitalist world order

Key Terms to Review (26)

Alienation: Alienation refers to a state of feeling disconnected or estranged from one's work, society, or self. In the context of Classical Marxism, it highlights the disempowerment of workers in a capitalist system, where they become mere cogs in the machinery of production, losing their sense of identity and fulfillment. This loss of connection can lead to feelings of isolation and dissatisfaction, as individuals are separated from the products of their labor and the community around them.
Bourgeoisie: The bourgeoisie refers to the social class that emerged during the rise of capitalism, characterized by their ownership of the means of production and their role in commerce and trade. This class is often contrasted with the proletariat, or working class, which sells its labor to the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie's economic power and influence have significant implications for social relations, political structures, and economic systems.
Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals or businesses own capital goods and are responsible for their production, distribution, and exchange. This system is characterized by the principles of free market competition, investment, profit motive, and limited government intervention in the economy. Capitalism is deeply connected to concepts of individual freedom, economic growth, and social inequality, making it a focal point in discussions about political ideologies and global economic structures.
Class struggle: Class struggle refers to the conflict and tension between different social classes, primarily between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat), which arises from their opposing interests in the economic system. This concept emphasizes how social, economic, and political power dynamics shape societal relations and lead to systemic changes over time. Class struggle is a fundamental idea in understanding historical and contemporary inequalities and the transformative potential of collective action.
Classical marxism: Classical Marxism is a socio-economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, focusing on the role of class struggle in societal development and advocating for the overthrow of capitalist systems to establish a classless society. It emphasizes the idea that historical progress occurs through conflicts between social classes, particularly between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). This theory critiques capitalism's exploitative nature and outlines a pathway toward socialism and ultimately communism.
Commodity fetishism: Commodity fetishism refers to the social phenomenon where the relationships and value of goods are obscured, leading to an overemphasis on the material object itself rather than the labor and social relations that produced it. This concept highlights how commodities are imbued with social power and status, making them seem more valuable than the human labor that creates them. In this way, commodity fetishism demonstrates how capitalism can distort human relationships and prioritize material wealth over social connections.
Communism: Communism is a socio-economic ideology that seeks to establish a classless society where the means of production are collectively owned, eliminating private property and promoting communal ownership. This system aims to achieve equality and eliminate the exploitation of labor by capitalists, often through revolutionary means as envisioned by its founder, Karl Marx. Central to this ideology is the belief in the eventual overthrow of capitalist systems, leading to a stateless and classless society.
Concentration and Centralization of Capital: Concentration and centralization of capital refer to the process where wealth and resources become concentrated in the hands of a few, while simultaneously leading to the centralization of economic power within large firms or corporations. This phenomenon highlights the tendency for smaller businesses to be absorbed or eliminated by larger entities, creating monopolies or oligopolies that dominate the market, which is a crucial aspect of classical Marxism's critique of capitalism.
Critique of political economy: The critique of political economy refers to a critical analysis of the ways in which economic structures and systems influence social and political relations. It primarily examines how economic power shapes societal norms, institutions, and individual behaviors, often highlighting inequalities and contradictions inherent in capitalism. This critique is rooted in Marxist theory, emphasizing the relationship between capital and labor, and the impact of capitalism on human conditions.
Dialectical materialism: Dialectical materialism is a philosophical approach that combines the principles of dialectics, which emphasizes the dynamic and contradictory nature of reality, with materialism, which asserts that the material world is the primary reality. This concept was central to classical Marxist thought, arguing that societal change arises from the conflict between opposing social classes driven by material conditions, rather than ideas or ideals alone.
Dictatorship of proletariat: The dictatorship of the proletariat is a Marxist concept referring to the transitional state in which the working class holds political power, aiming to dismantle capitalism and establish a classless society. This phase is characterized by the suppression of capitalist elements and the implementation of socialist policies to promote collective ownership and production. It's a critical step in Marxist theory that signifies the struggle for the working class to gain control over the means of production.
Exploitation: Exploitation refers to the process by which one group or entity takes unfair advantage of another, often resulting in the unequal distribution of resources, power, and opportunities. This concept is central to understanding the dynamics of class struggle, economic systems, and global interactions, where wealth and power are concentrated among a few at the expense of the many. It highlights how systemic inequalities are maintained and perpetuated across different social and economic contexts.
False consciousness: False consciousness refers to a situation where individuals or groups hold beliefs and attitudes that do not reflect their actual social and economic interests. This term is often associated with Classical Marxism, where it is used to explain how the working class may be misled into supporting the interests of the ruling class, thereby perpetuating their own oppression instead of recognizing their true class interests.
Friedrich Engels: Friedrich Engels was a German philosopher, social scientist, and political theorist who is best known for his collaboration with Karl Marx in developing the theory of Marxism. Engels co-authored key works such as 'The Communist Manifesto' and played a crucial role in advocating for the ideas of socialism and communism during the 19th century, significantly impacting the development of classical Marxism.
Global capitalism: Global capitalism refers to the worldwide economic system characterized by private ownership of production, market-driven economies, and the globalization of trade and investment. This system emphasizes the role of multinational corporations and financial markets in shaping economic policies and outcomes across nations, leading to interconnected economies. Global capitalism is critical for understanding various socio-economic dynamics, including class struggles, international inequalities, and the influence of capital on state policies.
Historical materialism: Historical materialism is a methodological approach to understanding society and history, emphasizing the role of material conditions and economic factors in shaping social structures and human relations. This perspective suggests that the economic base of a society influences its superstructure, which includes politics, culture, and ideology. Historical materialism connects deeply with theories of class struggle and the evolution of societies over time.
Ideological hegemony: Ideological hegemony refers to the dominance of a particular set of beliefs, values, and ideas in shaping social norms and political structures within a society. This concept suggests that the ruling class can maintain power not just through coercive means, but by promoting their ideology as the 'common sense' view that benefits them, thus preventing alternative viewpoints from gaining traction. It highlights how culture and ideology play crucial roles in reinforcing power dynamics.
Imperialism: Imperialism is a policy or ideology where a nation extends its power and dominance over other nations or territories, often through military force, political influence, or economic control. This practice has significant implications for global inequality, cultural interactions, and the political landscape, leading to systems of oppression and exploitation that continue to resonate today.
Karl Marx: Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist known for his theories on capitalism and class struggle. His ideas laid the foundation for the development of Marxism, which critiques capitalist societies and emphasizes the role of economic factors in shaping social relations and institutions. Marx's work focuses on the conflict between the bourgeoisie, or capitalists, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, or working class, who sell their labor.
Labor theory of value: The labor theory of value posits that the value of a commodity is determined by the socially necessary labor time required for its production. This concept suggests that labor is the primary source of economic value, emphasizing the relationship between work and the value assigned to goods and services in a capitalist system.
Paris Commune: The Paris Commune was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871. This period was marked by the establishment of a new political order that aimed to create a more egalitarian society, reflecting key principles of Classical Marxism, particularly the desire for workers' control over the means of production and the abolition of capitalist structures.
Permanent Revolution: Permanent revolution is a Marxist concept that asserts the necessity for continuous revolutionary activity, particularly in countries experiencing underdevelopment or oppression. It emphasizes that the working class must lead an ongoing struggle for socialism that cannot be confined to a single nation-state, as the success of socialism in one country relies on revolutions occurring in other countries to sustain it.
Proletarian Internationalism: Proletarian internationalism is a political principle that emphasizes the unity and solidarity of the working class across national boundaries. It is rooted in the belief that the struggles of workers in different countries are interconnected and that true liberation can only be achieved through international cooperation and solidarity among the proletariat. This concept is central to classical Marxism, which advocates for a global movement to overthrow capitalist systems and establish socialism worldwide.
Proletariat: The proletariat refers to the working class in a capitalist society, who do not own the means of production and must sell their labor to survive. This class is central to both classical Marxism and neo-Marxism, as it highlights the struggle against capitalist exploitation and the push for social change through collective action. Understanding the proletariat helps in analyzing class relations, economic inequality, and revolutionary potential within society.
Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution refers to a series of events in 1917 that led to the overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the establishment of a socialist state. This revolution included two major phases: the February Revolution, which resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, and the October Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, to power, ultimately paving the way for the formation of the Soviet Union.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system where the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned or regulated by the community as a whole. This system emphasizes collective or governmental control to ensure that wealth and resources are distributed more evenly among all citizens, aiming to reduce inequality and provide basic needs for everyone. The roots of socialism are deeply intertwined with the critiques of capitalism, particularly regarding class struggle and exploitation.
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