Restoration theater emerged in England from 1660-1710, reviving the art form after a Puritan ban. It introduced new genres, styles, and conventions that shaped future theater. The era's plays reflected changing social norms and political climates, often satirizing aristocratic behavior and exploring themes of love, status, and morality.
Characterized by witty dialogue, stock characters, and social commentary, Restoration comedies became a popular form of entertainment. Playwrights like Wycherley, Etherege, Congreve, and Behn created enduring works that continue to be performed and studied, leaving a lasting impact on English drama and stage practices.
Restoration theater overview
Restoration theater refers to English theater produced between 1660-1710, coinciding with the Restoration era when Charles II was restored to the throne
Characterized by a revival of theater after being banned under Puritan rule, reflecting changing social norms and political climate of the time
Significant in theater history for establishing new dramatic genres, playwriting styles, and staging conventions that influenced later periods
Defining characteristics of genre
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satirizing social customs, fashion, and behavior of the aristocratic class
Witty, fast-paced dialogue with verbal sparring and repartee between characters
Plots often revolve around love intrigues, infidelity, and schemes to gain wealth or social status
Characters tend to be stock types representing familiar social roles (the rake, the fop, the country bumpkin)
Historical context of era
Followed a period of Puritan rule under Oliver Cromwell when theaters were banned as immoral
Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660 brought a lifting of the ban and a revival of theatrical activity
Theater became a fashionable pastime for the aristocracy, reflecting their libertine values and tastes
Political instability and social change of the era were reflected in the plays' themes and characters
Prominent Restoration playwrights
Restoration theater saw the emergence of professional playwrights catering to popular tastes and commercial success
Playwrights experimented with new dramatic genres like the comedy of manners, heroic tragedy, and
Many were also poets, satirists, or literary critics engaged in public debates about the role and form of theater
William Wycherley
Considered one of the "big four" Restoration playwrights alongside Etherege, Congreve, and Behn
Best known for provocative comedies like satirizing sexual mores and hypocrisy
Plays feature sharp social observation, biting , and frank treatment of adult themes
Criticized by some for immorality but praised by others as holding a "mirror up to nature"
George Etherege
Helped popularize the comedy of manners genre with his 1676 play
Depicted aristocratic characters with sophistication, wit, and sexual intrigue
Plays reflect the hedonistic court culture and libertine values of Charles II's inner circle
Also served as a diplomat and courtier with a reputation as a notorious rake
William Congreve
Seen as the master of the comedy of manners form, known for his impeccable craftsmanship
Plays like are considered the pinnacle of Restoration wit and sophistication
Able to balance multiple plot lines and large casts of characters with thematic unity
Also wrote some acclaimed tragic plays, showcasing his versatility as a dramatist
Aphra Behn
One of the first English women to earn a living as a professional writer, producing many popular plays
Worked as a spy for Charles II before turning to playwriting, poetry, and fiction
Wrote in a range of genres but best known for her vivacious Restoration comedies like
Depicted confident, complex female characters while still operating within gender constraints of the time
Popular Restoration plays
Restoration theater produced a canon of enduring plays, especially in the comedy of manners genre
These plays exemplify the wit, style, and social commentary that define the era's theatrical output
Continue to be revived and adapted, attesting to their ongoing relevance and entertainment value
The Country Wife
1675 comedy by satirizing the sexual double standards of Restoration society
Centers on Harry Horner's scheme to seduce married women by pretending to be impotent
Depicts male libertinism and female hypocrisy with a frankness that shocked later audiences
Sparked debate about the role of theater in moral instruction vs. pure entertainment
The Man of Mode
1676 comedy by often subtitled "Sir Fopling Flutter" after a memorable fop character
Showcases the antics of the rakish Dorimant as he juggles romantic entanglements
Epitomizes the of manners in its witty dialogue and satirical characterizations
Offers a glimpse into the fashionable life of the courtier class and their social pretensions
The Way of the World
1700 comedy by considered his masterpiece and a pinnacle of the genre
Follows the twisting schemes of Mirabell and Millamant to obtain consent to marry and a full dowry
Combines multiple plot lines and characters in an intricately constructed, thematically unified work
Famous for its verbal wit, sophisticated repartee, and depth of characterization
The Rover
1677 comedy by following a band of exiled English cavaliers in carnival-time Naples
Blends romance, farce, and social commentary in a fast-moving, entertainingly bawdy romp
Notable for its prominent and complex female characters, especially the witty heroine Hellena
Reflects Behn's own experiences as a spy and her criticism of male libertinism
Restoration theater conventions
Restoration theater established theatrical conventions that defined the era and influenced later periods
Plays utilized a set of stock character types, plots, and dramatic devices to appeal to audience tastes
Staging practices took advantage of new technologies and visual spectacle to create an immersive experience
Reflected the social, political, and artistic concerns of the Restoration era while also aiming to entertain
Comedy of manners
Satirical genre exposing the affectations and intrigues of fashionable society, especially the aristocracy
Focuses on romantic plots, often involving characters seeking advantageous marriages or illicit affairs
Features witty, epigrammatic dialogue and repartee as characters verbally spar and scheme
Reflects the hedonistic, cynical values of the Restoration court and the era's libertine sexual mores
Satirical social commentary
Plays use humor and irony to critique the follies, vices, and hypocrisies of Restoration society
Often targets the privileged aristocratic class and their superficial concerns with fashion, gossip, and reputation
Exposes the gap between public manners and private behavior, revealing characters' true natures
Comments on topical issues and political events through veiled allusions and allegorical references
Witty, fast-paced dialogue
Plays are characterized by verbal dexterity, with characters trading quips, insults, and innuendos
Repartee often takes the form of extended metaphors, clever wordplay, and epigrammatic observations
Reflects the era's admiration for verbal wit and the ability to think quickly under pressure
Brisk pacing keeps plots moving swiftly through frequent twists, revelations, and reversals
Stock character types
Plays feature character types that recur across the Restoration repertoire, often based on social stereotypes
The rake hero is a witty, charming libertine who pursues women and outsmarts rivals (Dorimant, Willmore)
The fop is a vain, overly fashionable dandy obsessed with his appearance and social status (Sir Fopling Flutter)
The virtuous heroine is witty, resourceful, and resistant to male advances (Millamant, Hellena)
Other common types include the jealous husband, the bumbling country bumpkin, and the conniving servant
Restoration theater staging
Restoration theaters introduced new staging technologies and practices to create visual spectacle
Performances took place in long, narrow theaters with a deep forestage and framing the action
Scenery, costumes, and lighting were used to create a sense of realism and immerse audiences in the world of the play
Reflected the era's fascination with innovation, ornamentation, and conspicuous displays of wealth and status
Proscenium arch stage
Restoration theaters featured a proscenium arch framing the stage, separating the audience from the action
Created a sense of distance and voyeurism, as if peering into a separate world through a picture frame
Allowed for greater use of perspective scenery and special effects to create visual illusions
Reflected the era's interest in the science of optics and the aesthetics of the picture plane
Scenic design elements
Movable scenery was used to create a sense of depth and realism, with painted backdrops and wings
Shutters and grooves allowed for quick scene changes, creating a fluid, cinematic flow to the action
Scenic design often featured architectural elements, classical motifs, and ornate decoration
Elaborate set pieces like fountains, statues, and balconies created a sense of spectacle and grandeur
Costuming of period
Costumes were an important visual element, reflecting the fashion and opulence of the Restoration court
Characters wore elaborate, colorful clothing with decorative embellishments like lace, ribbons, and jewels
Costumes indicated characters' social status, occupation, and personality traits
Actresses' costumes were often designed to showcase their figures and physical charms
Lighting techniques used
Candles and oil lamps were used to illuminate the stage and create dramatic effects
Chandeliers hung over the stage and audience, creating a unified space and encouraging interaction
Colored glass and silk screens were used to tint the light and create atmospheric effects
Spotlights and follow spots were used to highlight key moments and direct audience attention
Restoration theater acting
Acting in Restoration theater was characterized by a stylized, presentational performance style
Emphasized the display of wit, charm, and verbal dexterity over emotional depth or realism
Featured direct address to the audience, breaking the to comment on the action
Reflected the era's fascination with artifice, role-playing, and the fashioning of public personae
Stylized performance style
Acting was highly stylized and presentational, with exaggerated gestures and vocal delivery
Emphasized the display of elegance, grace, and technical skill over emotional authenticity
Actors struck poses and used fans, snuffboxes, and other props to punctuate their speeches
Reflected the era's admiration for wit, charm, and the ability to perform social roles
Asides to the audience
Actors frequently broke the fourth wall to deliver and soliloquies directly to the audience
Asides were used to comment on the action, reveal characters' inner thoughts, or conspire with the audience
Created a sense of intimacy and collusion between actors and audience, inviting them to share in the joke
Reflected the era's fascination with theater as a self-conscious, artificial construct
Physical comedy elements
Plays often featured physical comedy, with pratfalls, slapstick, and exaggerated facial expressions
Used to punctuate verbal wit and provide visual counterpoint to the rapid-fire dialogue
Drew on the tradition of commedia dell'arte and the influence of continental theater styles
Showcased actors' acrobatic skills and ability to perform broad, stylized physical humor
Gender roles in casting
The Restoration stage was the first to feature professional actresses, ending the Elizabethan practice of all-male casts
Actresses brought a new sensuality and glamor to the stage, becoming celebrities in their own right
Cross-dressing plots played with gender roles and sexual identity, reflecting the era's libertine attitudes
Male actors still dominated the profession and often played the leading roles in both comedy and tragedy
Restoration theater audience
Restoration theater audiences were a diverse mix of social classes, united by a love of spectacle and entertainment
Attending the theater was a social occasion, with the audience as much on display as the actors onstage
Audiences were vocal and participatory, offering praise, criticism, and commentary throughout the performance
The theater served as a microcosm of Restoration society, reflecting its values, tensions, and preoccupations
Composition of theatergoers
Audiences included aristocrats, gentry, middle-class merchants, and working-class citizens
The theater was a fashionable destination for the court and the wealthy elite, who sat in the boxes
The pit was a mix of middle-class patrons and libertines, while the galleries were populated by the lower classes
Reflected the social stratification of Restoration society, with different areas of the theater catering to different classes
Audience interaction with performance
Audiences were active and vocal, offering applause, hisses, and shouts of approval or disapproval
Playwrights and actors often engaged in direct address, soliciting the audience's reactions and opinions
Prologues and epilogues were used to flatter the audience, comment on current events, and respond to criticism
Reflected the era's view of the theater as a participatory, interactive experience
Social aspects of theatergoing
Attending the theater was a social occasion, with the audience as much on display as the actors
The theater served as a gathering place for socializing, gossip, and people-watching
Intermissions were opportunities for the audience to mingle, flirt, and show off their fashionable attire
Reflected the era's fascination with self-display, public performance, and the cultivation of social connections
Reputation of theater in society
The theater was a controversial institution, with some seeing it as a corrupting influence on public morals
Puritans and religious authorities condemned the theater as a den of vice and licentiousness
Defenders argued that the theater served a valuable social function, holding a mirror up to society's follies and vices
Reflected the era's ongoing debates about the role of art in society and the tension between morality and entertainment
Legacy of Restoration theater
Restoration theater had a lasting impact on the development of English drama and the history of the stage
Its innovations in genre, style, and staging influenced the work of later playwrights and theater practitioners
Its depiction of social classes, gender roles, and political issues continues to resonate with modern audiences
Its legacy can be seen in the ongoing popularity of revivals, adaptations, and scholarly studies of Restoration plays
Influence on later comedy
Restoration comedy established the comedy of manners as a distinct genre, influencing later playwrights like Oscar Wilde and Noel Coward
Its emphasis on wit, social , and verbal dexterity set the tone for much of English comic drama in the centuries that followed
Its use of stock characters, plot devices, and staging conventions became a template for later comic playwrights to build upon and subvert
Its frank treatment of sexual themes and social taboos pushed the boundaries of what was acceptable on stage, paving the way for more daring and provocative comedies
Depiction of social classes
Restoration comedy offered a satirical portrayal of the aristocracy and the fashionable elite, exposing their follies and hypocrisies
Its depiction of the middle and lower classes, often as objects of ridicule or moral contrast, reflected the era's social hierarchies and prejudices
Its exploration of class tensions and social mobility, with characters attempting to rise above their station or maintain their status, resonated with later generations of audiences
Its portrayal of the wealthy as idle, superficial, and morally bankrupt continues to shape perceptions of the upper classes in popular culture
Treatment of gender roles
Restoration theater was groundbreaking in its use of professional actresses and its exploration of female agency and desire
Its depiction of witty, independent heroines who challenged traditional gender roles and expectations influenced later portrayals of women on stage
Its frank treatment of sexual themes and its portrayal of libertine male characters reflected the era's shifting attitudes towards gender and sexuality
Its exploration of cross-dressing, same-sex desire, and fluid gender identities anticipated later works of queer theater and gender studies
Reflection of political climate
Restoration plays often served as veiled commentaries on the political and social issues of the day, using allegory and satire to critique those in power
Its depiction of corrupt politicians, scheming courtiers, and the machinations of government reflected the era's political instability and public skepticism
Its exploration of themes like power, loyalty, and the abuse of authority resonated with later generations facing similar political challenges
Its legacy can be seen in the ongoing use of theater as a tool for political critique and social commentary, from the works of Bertolt Brecht to contemporary agitprop and activist theater.
Key Terms to Review (22)
Aphra Behn: Aphra Behn was a pioneering English playwright, poet, and novelist of the Restoration period, known for her bold exploration of themes such as gender, sexuality, and social status. Often recognized as one of the first professional female writers in English literature, her work played a crucial role in shaping the landscape of Restoration theater and challenging the norms of her time. Behn's contributions to drama and literature have left a lasting legacy, influencing future generations of writers and artists.
Asides: Asides are brief comments made by a character in a play that are directed to the audience but not heard by other characters. This device allows the audience to gain insight into a character's thoughts, motivations, or reactions without other characters being aware of them. Asides play a crucial role in revealing inner conflicts and enhancing dramatic irony, especially in Restoration theater, where witty dialogue and complex character relationships were central.
Comedy of manners: A comedy of manners is a theatrical genre that satirizes the behaviors, customs, and pretensions of the upper classes through witty dialogue and sophisticated plotlines. It often features intricate social interactions, misunderstandings, and a focus on the romantic entanglements of its characters. This style became particularly prominent during the Restoration period, where the exploration of social norms and class distinctions provided a rich backdrop for humor and critique.
Costume design: Costume design is the art of creating clothing and accessories for characters in a performance, which helps to define their personalities, status, and time period. It plays a crucial role in storytelling by visually communicating character traits and enhancing the overall aesthetic of a production. The choice of fabrics, colors, and styles contributes to the mood of the piece, while also ensuring practicality for the actors during performances.
Duke's Theatre: Duke's Theatre was a prominent playhouse in London, known for its role during the Restoration period of the late 17th century. Established by the Duke of York in 1660, it was one of the first theaters to operate after the English Civil War and became a key venue for the new form of drama that emerged during the Restoration, featuring professional actors and elaborate productions. The theatre symbolized a cultural revival and the shift toward a more commercial theater environment, showcasing works by notable playwrights of the time.
Fourth wall: The fourth wall is an imaginary barrier between the actors on stage and the audience, creating a sense of separation that allows the audience to observe the action without interacting with it. This concept emphasizes the idea of a performance as a distinct reality, where actors behave as if the audience is not present. The fourth wall can be broken when characters acknowledge or interact with the audience, creating a different kind of engagement.
George Etherege: George Etherege was a notable English playwright and poet from the Restoration period, best known for his contributions to the development of comedy in English theater. His works, particularly 'The Comical Revenge' and 'She Would if She Could,' reflect the wit and sophistication of Restoration comedy, often exploring themes of love, social manners, and the complexities of human relationships. Etherege's innovative use of dialogue and character development set the stage for later playwrights in this vibrant era of theatrical history.
Lincoln's Inn Fields: Lincoln's Inn Fields is a public square in London that is historically significant as a site for theater during the Restoration period. It became home to the first professional theater built in England after the Commonwealth, known as the Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre, which played a pivotal role in the development of Restoration theater by providing a venue for new plays and performances that reflected the social and political changes of the time.
Proscenium Arch: The proscenium arch is a structural arch that frames the stage in a theater, creating a 'picture frame' effect that separates the audience from the performers. This design not only enhances visual focus but also helps define the space for theatrical action, allowing for a clear boundary between the performance area and the auditorium. It also plays a crucial role in Restoration theater, where the visual spectacle was a significant aspect of productions, influencing stage design and audience engagement.
Restoration Comedy: Restoration Comedy refers to a style of English comedic theater that emerged after the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, characterized by its witty dialogue, complex plots, and satirical portrayal of contemporary society. This genre often highlighted themes of sexual intrigue, social class, and the battle of the sexes, reflecting the changing cultural norms and values of the time. Restoration Comedy played a crucial role in shaping modern theatrical conventions and offered a platform for both criticism and celebration of the post-Civil War English society.
Restoration Tragedy: Restoration tragedy refers to a specific genre of English drama that emerged during the Restoration period in the late 17th century, characterized by its complex characters and intricate plots often revolving around themes of love, betrayal, and moral ambiguity. This genre marked a return to serious dramatic forms after years of Puritan censorship, featuring heightened emotional intensity and an exploration of human nature's darker aspects. Restoration tragedies were influenced by earlier works from both classical antiquity and contemporary European drama, reflecting a cultural shift towards more secular and sophisticated storytelling.
Satire: Satire is a genre of literature and performing arts that uses humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to criticize and expose flaws in society, politics, or human behavior. It often aims to provoke thought and inspire change by highlighting absurdities or injustices in a way that engages the audience while entertaining them. Satire can take many forms, including plays, poems, essays, and films, making it a versatile tool for commentary on contemporary issues.
The Country Wife: The Country Wife is a restoration comedy written by William Wycherley, first performed in 1675. The play satirizes the sexual politics and social mores of the Restoration period, highlighting the contrast between urban and rural values. Through its characters, especially the witty and cunning Mrs. Pinchwife, the play explores themes of desire, deception, and the pursuit of pleasure in a society marked by hypocrisy and pretension.
The English Civil War: The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists in England from 1642 to 1651. The war was fundamentally about the power struggle between King Charles I and Parliament, leading to significant changes in governance and the eventual rise of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. This conflict had lasting effects on English society, including the establishment of new political ideas and forms of theater during the Restoration period.
The Glorious Revolution: The Glorious Revolution was a pivotal event in English history that took place in 1688 when King James II was overthrown and replaced by William of Orange and his wife Mary. This bloodless coup established constitutional monarchy in England and had lasting effects on the power dynamics between the monarchy and Parliament. It set the stage for the future development of political and religious freedom in England, as well as the rise of Restoration theater, which flourished under the new regime.
The Man of Mode: The Man of Mode is a comedic play written by George Etherege in 1676, embodying the characteristics of Restoration theater through its satirical portrayal of contemporary society and the exploration of themes such as love, social status, and moral ambiguity. This play highlights the behaviors and attitudes of the fashionable young man of the era, often portrayed as witty, charming, and morally questionable, reflecting the shifting social dynamics following the restoration of the monarchy in England. It serves as a critical lens on the emerging modern identity shaped by societal expectations and personal desires during this transformative period.
The Rover: The Rover is a comedic play written by Aphra Behn in the late 17th century, which is often celebrated as one of the first significant works of female playwrights during the Restoration era. The play combines elements of farce and romantic comedy, centering around themes of love, deception, and sexual politics, set against the vibrant backdrop of a carnival in Naples. Behn's work showcases the shifting societal attitudes towards gender and sexuality during the Restoration, making it an essential piece of theater history.
The way of the world: The way of the world refers to the social norms, behaviors, and expectations that govern human interactions and relationships in society. This term often highlights the complexities of human nature, the struggles for power and influence, and the inherent contradictions within societal structures. In this context, it emphasizes how personal desires and ambitions often clash with moral values and social conventions.
Tragicomedy: Tragicomedy is a genre that blends elements of both tragedy and comedy, presenting serious themes alongside humorous moments. This unique combination allows audiences to experience a range of emotions, reflecting the complexities of human life, where joy and sorrow often coexist. The genre challenges the traditional boundaries of theater by intertwining the gravity of tragic events with lighter, comedic situations, creating a more nuanced and relatable narrative.
William Congreve: William Congreve was an English playwright and poet, known for his contributions to Restoration theater in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His works, marked by sharp wit, sophisticated characters, and intricate plots, reflect the cultural and social dynamics of his time. Congreve's most famous plays, such as 'The Way of the World,' showcase the blend of comedy and satire that became hallmarks of Restoration drama.
William Wycherley: William Wycherley was a prominent English playwright and a leading figure in Restoration theater, known for his sharp wit and satirical comedies that reflect the social mores of the late 17th century. His works, particularly 'The Country Wife' and 'The Plain Dealer', highlight the themes of sexual politics and the complexities of human relationships, using humor to critique contemporary society. Wycherley's plays are significant for their exploration of moral ambiguity and the changing landscape of English theater post-Restoration.
Wit: Wit refers to the ability to express oneself in a clever and humorous way, often through sharp or incisive remarks. In the context of theatrical performance, wit is a key element that enhances dialogue and character interactions, often serving as a tool for social commentary and satire. It can illuminate the complexities of human relationships and societal norms, revealing deeper truths while entertaining the audience.