9.6 Fascism and totalitarianism
10 min read•august 21, 2024
and emerged as powerful forces in the early 20th century, reshaping politics and society. These ideologies gained traction amid economic turmoil, social upheaval, and disillusionment with traditional systems, offering simplistic solutions to complex problems.
Characterized by ultranationalism, authoritarianism, and , fascist regimes rose to power in Italy, Germany, and Spain. While sharing similarities with totalitarianism, fascism's unique blend of extreme and corporatism set it apart from other authoritarian systems of the era.
Origins of fascism
- Fascism emerged as a political ideology and movement in the early 20th century, shaped by the tumultuous events and social upheavals of the Modern Period
- The rise of fascism reflected deep-seated anxieties and discontents within European societies, challenging traditional liberal democratic values
- Fascist ideologies gained traction by offering simplistic solutions to complex problems, appealing to national pride and promising economic revival
Aftermath of World War I
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- Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany fueled resentment and economic hardship
- Disillusionment with existing political systems led to a search for alternative ideologies
- Collapse of empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman) created power vacuums and instability
- Widespread trauma and loss from the war contributed to a militaristic mindset
Economic instability and nationalism
- Great Depression of 1929 exacerbated economic hardships and social unrest
- High unemployment rates and inflation fostered distrust in democratic governments
- Extreme nationalism emerged as a unifying force against perceived external threats
- Economic protectionism and isolationist policies gained popularity
Ideological influences
- Social Darwinism applied concepts of natural selection to human societies
- Nietzschean philosophy of the "will to power" influenced fascist thinking
- Syndicalism contributed ideas of corporate organization and national unity
- Romantic nationalism emphasized cultural and racial superiority
Key characteristics of fascism
- Fascism represented a radical departure from traditional political ideologies, combining elements of nationalism, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism
- The ideology rejected both liberal democracy and communist internationalism, positioning itself as a "third way"
- Fascist movements shared common features despite variations across different countries and contexts
Ultranationalism and xenophobia
- Extreme pride in national identity and cultural superiority
- Promotion of a mythical past and national rebirth ()
- Scapegoating of minority groups and foreigners for societal problems
- Emphasis on racial purity and eugenics (Nazi Germany's Aryan supremacy)
Authoritarian leadership
- around a charismatic leader (Führer principle)
- Centralization of power in the hands of a single party or individual
- Suppression of opposition and dissent through violence and intimidation
- Use of secret police and surveillance to maintain control ( in Nazi Germany)
Militarism and expansionism
- Glorification of military values and martial prowess
- Pursuit of territorial expansion and (living space)
- Emphasis on national strength and readiness for conflict
- Rearmament programs and military parades as displays of power
Anti-democratic principles
- Rejection of individual rights and liberties in favor of collective goals
- Dismantling of democratic institutions and checks on power
- Suppression of free press and independent judiciary
- Promotion of single-party rule and elimination of political pluralism
Rise of fascist regimes
- The interwar period saw the emergence of fascist governments in several European countries
- Economic crises, political instability, and fear of communism created fertile ground for fascist movements
- Fascist leaders exploited democratic systems to gain power before dismantling them
Mussolini's Italy
- founded the Fascist Party in 1919
- March on Rome in 1922 led to Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister
- Gradual consolidation of power through legal and extralegal means
- Creation of a corporatist state with heavy government intervention in economy
Hitler's Nazi Germany
- joined the Nazi Party in 1919 and became its leader in 1921
- Failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 brought Hitler national attention
- Nazi Party gained popularity during Great Depression, winning plurality in 1932 elections
- Hitler appointed Chancellor in 1933, quickly establishing totalitarian control
Franco's Spain
- led Nationalist forces in Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
- Established authoritarian regime after defeating Republican forces
- Implemented National Catholicism as state ideology
- Maintained neutrality in World War II but aligned with Axis powers
Totalitarianism vs fascism
- Totalitarianism and fascism share many characteristics but are not synonymous
- Both ideologies emerged as responses to the challenges of modernity and mass politics
- Understanding their similarities and differences is crucial for analyzing 20th-century political developments
Similarities and differences
- Both systems feature strong centralized authority and suppression of individual rights
- Fascism emphasizes ultranationalism while totalitarianism can have various ideological bases
- Totalitarianism seeks to control all aspects of society, while fascism may allow some private spheres
- Fascism often relies on traditional elites, while totalitarianism can be more revolutionary
Soviet Union under Stalin
- established a totalitarian regime after Lenin's death in 1924
- Implemented collectivization of agriculture and rapid industrialization
- eliminated perceived opponents and instilled fear in population
- Cult of personality rivaled that of fascist leaders
- Ideology based on Marxism-Leninism rather than fascist ultranationalism
Propaganda and mass mobilization
- Fascist regimes utilized modern communication technologies to spread their message
- Mass mobilization techniques aimed to create a sense of national unity and purpose
- efforts targeted all aspects of society, from education to entertainment
Control of media
- Censorship of newspapers, radio, and film to suppress dissenting voices
- Creation of state-run media outlets to disseminate official propaganda
- Use of visual propaganda (posters, newsreels) to reinforce ideological messages
- Burning of books deemed subversive or degenerate (Nazi book burnings)
Youth organizations
- Hitler Youth in Germany indoctrinated children from an early age
- Italian Fascist youth groups (Opera Nazionale Balilla) promoted physical fitness and loyalty
- Emphasis on paramilitary training and ideological education
- Creation of parallel organizations for girls focusing on traditional gender roles
Public spectacles and rallies
- Mass rallies designed to create emotional fervor and unity (Nuremberg Rallies)
- Elaborate ceremonies and rituals to reinforce national myths
- Use of symbols and uniforms to create visual cohesion
- Sporting events and cultural festivals as displays of national strength
Economic policies
- Fascist economic policies aimed to strengthen national power and self-sufficiency
- Rejection of both laissez-faire capitalism and communist central planning
- Emphasis on state intervention and cooperation between government and business
Corporatism and state control
- Organization of economy into corporate sectors under state supervision
- Suppression of independent labor unions and worker rights
- Public works projects to reduce unemployment (autobahns in Germany)
- State-directed industrialization and rearmament programs
Autarky and self-sufficiency
- Pursuit of economic independence from foreign markets
- Development of synthetic materials to replace imports (synthetic rubber)
- Emphasis on domestic agriculture and resource extraction
- Trade policies designed to reduce reliance on international commerce
Persecution and genocide
- Fascist ideologies often incorporated racist and anti-Semitic beliefs
- Persecution of minority groups was central to fascist regimes' policies
- The represents the most extreme manifestation of fascist racial theories
Racial theories and eugenics
- Pseudoscientific beliefs in racial hierarchies and genetic superiority
- in Nazi Germany codified racial discrimination
- Forced sterilization programs targeting "undesirable" populations
- Promotion of selective breeding to improve the "national stock"
Holocaust and other atrocities
- Systematic murder of six million Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe
- Targeting of other groups (Roma, homosexuals, disabled persons) for extermination
- Use of concentration camps and death camps (Auschwitz, Treblinka)
- Collaboration of local authorities in occupied territories with Nazi policies
- Italian racial laws and persecution of Jews and Slavs in Fascist Italy
World War II and fascism
- World War II represented the culmination of fascist expansionist ambitions
- The conflict pitted fascist Axis powers against Allied democracies and the Soviet Union
- The war's outcome led to the downfall of major fascist regimes
Axis powers and alliances
- Tripartite Pact signed in 1940 between Germany, Italy, and Japan
- Other Axis-aligned states included Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria
- Spain remained officially neutral but sympathetic to Axis cause
- Ideological differences between fascist regimes and imperial Japan
Fascist war aims and strategies
- Blitzkrieg tactics employed by German forces for rapid conquest
- Lebensraum policy aimed at eastern expansion and colonization
- Exploitation of conquered territories for resources and labor
- Coordination of military and ideological goals ( in Eastern Front)
Fall of fascist regimes
- Allied victory in World War II led to the collapse of major fascist governments
- Post-war efforts focused on de-Nazification and preventing resurgence of fascism
- The Cold War shifted global focus to the conflict between capitalism and communism
Allied victory and occupation
- Unconditional surrender of Germany in May 1945
- Division of Germany and Berlin into occupation zones
- Overthrow of Mussolini's regime in Italy in 1943
- Allied occupation and reconstruction efforts in former Axis countries
Nuremberg trials
- International Military Tribunal tried major Nazi war criminals
- Establishment of principle of individual responsibility for war crimes
- Prosecution of crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity
- Subsequent trials of lower-ranking officials and industrialists
Neo-fascism and modern legacy
- Despite the defeat of historical fascist regimes, fascist-inspired ideologies persist
- Modern far-right movements often incorporate elements of fascist thought
- Debates continue over the nature of fascism and its contemporary relevance
Post-war fascist movements
- maintained fascist traditions in post-war Italy
- Neo-Nazi groups emerged in Germany and other countries
- in Greece gained prominence during economic crisis
- Attempts to rehabilitate fascist figures (Mussolini in Italy)
Contemporary far-right ideologies
- Populist movements incorporating nationalist and xenophobic elements
- White supremacist groups drawing on fascist racial theories
- Anti-immigrant parties gaining support in Europe and elsewhere
- Online radicalization and spread of extremist ideologies
Artistic and cultural expressions
- Fascist regimes sought to reshape culture to align with their ideological goals
- Some artistic movements initially embraced fascist aesthetics before becoming disillusioned
- Cultural policies aimed to promote national identity and suppress dissenting voices
Futurism and modernism
- Italian Futurism initially aligned with fascist glorification of technology and violence
- Nazi regime's complex relationship with modernist art (initially embraced, later rejected)
- Architectural projects reflecting fascist ideals of power and order (EUR district in Rome)
- Film used as propaganda tool (Leni Riefenstahl's "Triumph of the Will")
Censorship and approved art
- Concept of "degenerate art" used to suppress modern and avant-garde styles
- Promotion of neoclassical and realist art celebrating national themes
- Book burnings and blacklists of forbidden authors
- State sponsorship of artists and cultural institutions adhering to official ideology
Fascism in historical context
- Fascism emerged as a response to specific historical conditions of the early 20th century
- Understanding the context helps explain fascism's appeal and rise to power
- The ideology's development was shaped by broader trends in European thought and politics
Interwar period challenges
- Crisis of liberal democracy and parliamentary systems
- Rapid social changes due to industrialization and urbanization
- Impact of World War I on European societies and economies
- Rise of mass politics and new forms of political organization
Responses to communism
- Fascism positioned itself as a bulwark against communist revolution
- Appeal to middle classes and elites fearful of socialist upheaval
- Incorporation of some left-wing economic ideas while rejecting class struggle
- used to justify repression and expansion
Psychological aspects
- Fascism's appeal can be understood through psychological and sociological lenses
- Studies of authoritarianism provide insights into fascist movements' support base
- Understanding mass psychology helps explain fascism's mobilization techniques
Mass psychology and conformity
- Le Bon's theories of crowd behavior influenced fascist leaders
- Use of symbols and rituals to create emotional bonds within the movement
- Exploitation of in-group/out-group dynamics to foster unity and scapegoating
- Role of propaganda in shaping public opinion and manufacturing consent
Authoritarianism and personality
- Adorno's F-scale measured potential for fascist attitudes
- Authoritarian personality type characterized by rigid thinking and submission to authority
- Relationship between economic insecurity and support for authoritarian leaders
- Impact of childhood experiences on development of authoritarian tendencies
Fascism's global impact
- Fascism's influence extended beyond Europe, affecting colonial territories and inspiring movements worldwide
- The ideology's emphasis on national strength and racial superiority had significant implications for international relations
Colonial and imperial ambitions
- Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 as expression of fascist expansionism
- Nazi Germany's concept of lebensraum applied to Eastern Europe
- Japanese imperialism in Asia shared some fascist characteristics
- Impact of fascist ideologies on colonial administration and racial policies
Resistance movements
- Formation of anti-fascist coalitions and popular fronts
- Partisan movements in occupied territories (Yugoslav Partisans, French Resistance)
- International Brigades in Spanish Civil War as anti-fascist volunteers
- Long-term impact of anti-fascist struggle on post-war political movements
Theoretical interpretations
- Scholars have proposed various theories to explain the nature and origins of fascism
- Different ideological perspectives offer contrasting analyses of fascism's causes and characteristics
- Ongoing debates in historiography and political science about fascism's definition and legacy
Marxist perspectives
- Fascism seen as a reactionary movement serving capitalist interests
- Analysis of fascism's class base and relationship to economic crises
- Concept of fascism as the "open terrorist dictatorship" of finance capital
- Debates over fascism's relationship to imperialism and colonialism
Liberal and conservative analyses
- Liberal interpretations focusing on fascism's rejection of Enlightenment values
- Conservative critiques of fascism's revolutionary and totalitarian aspects
- Analyses of fascism as a form of political religion or secular millennialism
- Comparisons between fascism and other forms of authoritarianism and populism
Key Terms to Review (30)
Adolf Hitler: Adolf Hitler was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) and Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. His totalitarian regime is notorious for its fascist ideology, which emphasized nationalism, militarism, and anti-Semitism, leading to the implementation of policies that resulted in World War II and the Holocaust.
Anti-communist rhetoric: Anti-communist rhetoric refers to the use of language and communication strategies aimed at denouncing and opposing communist ideologies and movements. This type of rhetoric often emphasizes the dangers posed by communism to democracy, capitalism, and individual freedoms, creating a sense of urgency and fear around the perceived threat of communist influence within society. It was particularly prominent during the 20th century as countries grappled with the rise of communism and its implications for global politics and governance.
Autarky: Autarky is an economic policy aimed at self-sufficiency, where a nation seeks to minimize its dependence on foreign trade by producing all necessary goods domestically. This approach often aligns with the ideologies of fascism and totalitarianism, where control over the economy is centralized, and the state prioritizes national production to bolster its power and independence.
Authoritarianism theory: Authoritarianism theory refers to a political framework in which a single leader or a small group of individuals holds significant power, restricting individual freedoms and limiting political pluralism. This theory emphasizes the maintenance of order and control over society, often justified by the need for stability or national security, and is closely related to systems like fascism and totalitarianism, where the state exerts overwhelming influence over all aspects of life.
Benito Mussolini: Benito Mussolini was an Italian political leader who founded the National Fascist Party and became the Prime Minister of Italy, serving from 1922 until 1943. He was known for establishing a totalitarian regime that emphasized aggressive nationalism, militarism, and anti-communism, aligning himself with Adolf Hitler during World War II. His rule exemplified the principles of fascism and set a precedent for totalitarian governance in Europe.
Cult of personality: A cult of personality refers to a situation where a public figure, often a political leader, uses mass media and propaganda to create an idealized and heroic image of themselves, leading to an intense devotion from the public. This phenomenon is a crucial aspect of totalitarian regimes, where leaders manipulate public perception to maintain power and control, fostering a sense of loyalty that can overshadow dissent or opposition.
Einsatzgruppen: Einsatzgruppen were mobile killing units of the Nazi regime during World War II, responsible for mass shootings and the systematic extermination of Jews and other perceived enemies of the state. These units operated primarily in Eastern Europe and were a crucial component of the Holocaust, reflecting the brutal totalitarian nature of the regime and its genocidal policies.
Fascism: Fascism is a far-right political ideology characterized by authoritarian nationalism, the suppression of dissent, and strong centralized control, often led by a dictatorial leader. This ideology promotes the idea of a unified national identity and often seeks to create a homogeneous society through exclusionary tactics, which can include racism and militarism. The rise of fascism was notably linked to the social and economic turmoil following World War I and gained prominence in the interwar period leading up to World War II.
Francisco Franco: Francisco Franco was a Spanish military general and dictator who ruled Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. He rose to power after leading a successful coup against the democratically elected government during the Spanish Civil War, establishing a totalitarian regime characterized by fascist elements and repression of political opposition.
Führerschaft principle: The führer principle, or Führerprinzip, is a political concept that emphasizes the role of a single leader with absolute authority in a totalitarian regime. This principle underlines the importance of loyalty to the leader, often at the expense of democratic processes and individual rights, effectively creating a system where all power is centralized and controlled by one person, exemplified by Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany. This structure was crucial in establishing fascist ideologies that promoted authoritarian governance and suppressed dissent.
Gestapo: The Gestapo was the secret police of Nazi Germany, known for its brutal tactics and surveillance methods aimed at eliminating opposition to the Nazi regime. This organization played a crucial role in enforcing totalitarian control through widespread intimidation, arrests, and persecution of perceived enemies, including political dissidents, Jews, and other marginalized groups. The Gestapo's operations exemplified the darker aspects of fascism and totalitarianism, highlighting the extent to which state power could be wielded against individuals.
Golden Dawn: Golden Dawn is a far-right political party in Greece, known for its ultra-nationalist, anti-immigrant, and neo-fascist ideologies. It emerged in the 1980s but gained significant attention during the financial crisis of the late 2000s, capitalizing on social unrest and economic instability to promote its agenda of xenophobia and nationalism.
Great Purge: The Great Purge was a campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union from 1936 to 1938, characterized by widespread arrests, executions, and the persecution of perceived enemies of the state. This brutal crackdown was initiated by Joseph Stalin to consolidate power, eliminate opposition within the Communist Party, and instill a culture of fear among the populace, reflecting key elements of totalitarian regimes.
Holocaust: The Holocaust refers to the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and annihilation of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators from 1941 to 1945. This genocide was a crucial event during World War II, characterized by the totalitarian approach of fascist ideologies that dehumanized minority groups. The Holocaust not only underscores the devastating impact of fascism and totalitarianism but also highlights the extreme consequences of unchecked hatred and discrimination in society.
Italian Social Movement: The Italian Social Movement (Movimento Sociale Italiano, MSI) was a political party in Italy founded in 1946, characterized by its neo-fascist ideology and a desire to revive the values of Italy's past under Mussolini. It emerged in the aftermath of World War II, capitalizing on the discontent with the existing political structures and seeking to offer an alternative that resonated with nationalist sentiments. The MSI played a significant role in shaping Italy's post-war politics, especially during periods of social unrest and economic challenges.
Joseph Stalin: Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, known for his totalitarian regime characterized by widespread repression, state control of the economy, and aggressive industrialization. His rule is a prime example of totalitarianism, showcasing how a single party could exert absolute control over every aspect of public and private life.
Lebensraum: Lebensraum, meaning 'living space' in German, refers to the concept that a nation needs to expand its territory to provide sufficient resources and space for its population. This idea became a core principle in Nazi ideology, justifying the aggressive expansionist policies of the regime, particularly during World War II. It emphasized the need for a racially defined community to acquire land for growth, often at the expense of other nations and peoples.
Mein Kampf: Mein Kampf is a political manifesto written by Adolf Hitler, outlining his ideology and future plans for Germany. The book discusses themes such as nationalism, anti-Semitism, and the concept of Aryan supremacy, forming the ideological foundation for Nazi policies and totalitarian rule. Its ideas significantly influenced the rise of fascism and totalitarianism in Europe during the 20th century.
Mussolini's Italy: Mussolini's Italy refers to the period of Fascist rule in Italy under Benito Mussolini from 1922 to 1943, characterized by a totalitarian regime that emphasized nationalism, militarism, and state control over various aspects of life. This regime utilized propaganda, censorship, and violence to suppress opposition and maintain power, showcasing key elements of fascism and totalitarianism.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation, often prioritizing national identity and unity over individual or group identities. It can lead to the pursuit of self-determination, independence, and the establishment of nation-states, shaping political landscapes and conflicts throughout modern history.
Nuremberg Laws: The Nuremberg Laws were a set of racial anti-Semitic laws enacted in Nazi Germany in 1935, aimed at institutionalizing many of the racial theories prevalent in Nazi ideology. These laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship and prohibited them from marrying or having sexual relations with persons of 'German or related blood'. The Nuremberg Laws marked a crucial step in the escalation of anti-Jewish legislation that ultimately led to the systemic persecution and genocide during World War II.
Palingenesis: Palingenesis refers to the idea of rebirth or regeneration, often used in political contexts to describe the restoration of a nation's perceived greatness through the revival of its historical and cultural identity. This concept is closely associated with fascism and totalitarian regimes, which promote the notion of returning to a glorious past while seeking to unify and mobilize the population under a strong central authority.
Political Repression: Political repression refers to the actions taken by a government or authority to control, silence, or suppress dissenting voices, activities, or groups that challenge its power. This often includes the use of force, censorship, imprisonment, or other means to maintain control and eliminate opposition. In contexts marked by fascism and totalitarianism, political repression becomes a fundamental tool for these regimes to instill fear and conformity among the population.
Propaganda: Propaganda is a form of communication aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position by presenting only one side of an argument. It is often used to promote political agendas, mobilize support, or justify actions, and can involve various techniques, including emotional appeals, selective facts, and imagery. In times of conflict or political upheaval, propaganda becomes a powerful tool for governments and organizations to shape public perception and manipulate opinions.
State control: State control refers to the extensive mechanisms through which a government exerts authority over various aspects of society, including political, economic, and social life. In regimes characterized by fascism and totalitarianism, state control becomes absolute, permeating every layer of existence, often through propaganda, surveillance, and coercion. This level of control serves to suppress dissent and maintain the regime's power, fundamentally altering the relationship between the state and individual citizens.
Suppression of dissent: Suppression of dissent refers to the practice of stifling or silencing opposing views, opinions, or actions that challenge the dominant ideology or authority within a society. This concept is crucial in understanding how totalitarian regimes maintain control and power by creating an atmosphere of fear, limiting freedom of expression, and enforcing conformity through various means such as censorship, propaganda, and state violence.
The Night of the Long Knives: The Night of the Long Knives refers to a purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934, where Adolf Hitler ordered a series of political extrajudicial executions aimed at consolidating his power and eliminating potential threats within the Nazi Party and the broader German political landscape. This event is significant as it highlights the violent measures used by totalitarian regimes to maintain control and eliminate opposition.
The origins of totalitarianism: The origins of totalitarianism refer to the historical and ideological factors that led to the establishment of regimes characterized by absolute power, complete government control over all aspects of life, and suppression of political dissent. This concept connects to movements that arose in the early 20th century, particularly fascism and communism, as governments sought to mobilize entire populations and eradicate opposition through propaganda, state terror, and mass surveillance.
Totalitarian theory: Totalitarian theory is a political concept that describes a system of government where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and seeks to regulate every aspect of public and private life. This theory encompasses various forms of governance that demand complete subservience from the citizens and typically features a single-party rule, an official ideology, and extensive use of propaganda. It is closely associated with regimes like Fascism and Stalinist Communism, illustrating how such governments can manipulate social structures to consolidate power.
Totalitarianism: Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state seeks to control every aspect of public and private life, often through propaganda, repression, and a single-party rule. It is characterized by the concentration of power in a centralized authority that suppresses dissent and opposes any form of individual autonomy. This system emerged prominently in the 20th century, particularly in contexts where revolutions or economic instability led to the rise of authoritarian regimes.