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The internet's architecture forms the backbone of modern digital communication, enabling global connectivity and information exchange. Understanding its fundamentals is crucial for developing effective technology policies addressing issues like the digital divide, cybersecurity, and data privacy.

Key internet protocols establish standardized rules for data communication and network operation, ensuring interoperability between diverse devices and systems across the global internet. Grasping these protocols is essential for developing policies that address internet governance, security, and privacy concerns.

Fundamentals of internet architecture

  • Internet architecture forms the backbone of modern digital communication, enabling global connectivity and information exchange
  • Understanding internet architecture is crucial for developing effective technology policies that address issues like digital divide, cybersecurity, and data privacy
  • The fundamental principles of internet architecture influence how we interact with technology and shape the digital landscape

Layered network model

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  • Consists of five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application
  • Each layer performs specific functions and communicates with adjacent layers
  • Enables modular design and easier troubleshooting of network issues
  • Facilitates interoperability between different network technologies and protocols
  • Examples of protocols at each layer include:
    • Physical layer: Ethernet, Wi-Fi
    • Data link layer: MAC addressing, ARP
    • Network layer: IP, ICMP
    • Transport layer: TCP, UDP
    • Application layer: HTTP, FTP, SMTP

Client-server paradigm

  • Defines the relationship between client devices and server systems
  • Clients request services or resources from servers
  • Servers process requests and send responses back to clients
  • Enables distributed computing and scalable network architectures
  • Supports various application models:
    • Web browsing (web browsers as clients, web servers as servers)
    • Email systems (email clients and mail servers)
    • File sharing (FTP clients and file servers)

Packet switching vs circuit switching

  • Packet switching breaks data into small packets for transmission
  • Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path for the entire session
  • Packet switching offers more efficient use of network resources
  • Circuit switching provides guaranteed bandwidth and lower latency
  • Comparison of characteristics:
    • Resource allocation: On-demand for packet switching, pre-allocated for circuit switching
    • Network congestion handling: Better in packet switching
    • Latency: Generally lower in circuit switching
    • Applications: Internet uses packet switching, traditional telephone networks use circuit switching

Key internet protocols

  • Internet protocols establish standardized rules for data communication and network operation
  • These protocols ensure interoperability between diverse devices and systems across the global internet
  • Understanding key protocols is essential for developing policies that address internet governance, security, and privacy concerns

TCP/IP suite overview

  • Forms the foundation of internet communication
  • Consists of four layers: network interface, internet, transport, and application
  • Provides end-to-end connectivity and reliable data transmission
  • Key protocols within the suite include:
    • IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and routing
    • TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for reliable, connection-oriented communication
    • UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for faster, connectionless communication
  • Enables seamless communication between different types of networks and devices

HTTP and HTTPS

  • HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) facilitates web page retrieval and data exchange
  • HTTPS (HTTP Secure) adds encryption and authentication to HTTP
  • Key features of HTTP:
    • Request-response model
    • Stateless protocol
    • Supports various methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE)
  • HTTPS benefits:
    • Encrypts data in transit using SSL/TLS
    • Protects against man-in-the-middle attacks
    • Improves user trust and search engine rankings

DNS and domain names

  • DNS (Domain Name System) translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses
  • Hierarchical structure of domain names (root, top-level, second-level, subdomains)
  • DNS resolution process:
    • Client queries local DNS resolver
    • Resolver contacts root servers, then TLD servers, then authoritative name servers
    • Caching improves efficiency and reduces load on DNS infrastructure
  • Domain name registration and management through registrars and registries

Network addressing and routing

  • Network addressing and routing enable efficient data transmission across the internet
  • These concepts are fundamental to understanding internet connectivity and traffic flow
  • Policies related to IP address allocation and routing protocols impact internet accessibility and performance

IP addressing schemes

  • IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, allowing approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses
  • IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, providing a vastly larger address space
  • IP address classes in IPv4:
    • Class A: Large networks (1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255)
    • Class B: Medium-sized networks (128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255)
    • Class C: Small networks (192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255)
  • Special-use IP addresses:
    • Loopback address: 127.0.0.1
    • Private IP ranges: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16

Subnetting and CIDR

  • Subnetting divides larger networks into smaller subnetworks
  • CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) allows more flexible allocation of IP addresses
  • Subnet mask determines network and host portions of an IP address
  • CIDR notation uses a forward slash followed by the number of network bits
  • Benefits of subnetting and CIDR:
    • Improved network performance and security
    • More efficient use of IP address space
    • Simplified routing table management

BGP and autonomous systems

  • BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) manages routing between autonomous systems
  • Autonomous System (AS) represents a network under a single administrative domain
  • BGP characteristics:
    • Path vector protocol
    • Uses TCP for reliable communication
    • Exchanges routing information between AS border routers
  • AS numbers are assigned by regional internet registries
  • BGP policies influence global internet routing and can impact network performance and reliability

Internet governance

  • Internet governance involves the development and application of principles, norms, and decision-making procedures that shape the evolution and use of the internet
  • Effective governance ensures the stability, security, and interoperability of the global internet
  • Understanding internet governance structures is crucial for policymakers addressing issues like cybersecurity, privacy, and digital rights

ICANN and IANA roles

  • ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) coordinates global DNS management
  • IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) oversees global IP address allocation
  • ICANN responsibilities:
    • Managing top-level domains (TLDs)
    • Accrediting domain name registrars
    • Developing policies for domain name dispute resolution
  • IANA functions:
    • Allocating IP address blocks to regional internet registries
    • Managing the root zone of the DNS
    • Coordinating the assignment of protocol parameters

Regional internet registries

  • Five RIRs manage IP address allocation in their respective regions
  • ARIN (North America), RIPE NCC (Europe), APNIC (Asia-Pacific), LACNIC (Latin America and Caribbean), AFRINIC (Africa)
  • RIR responsibilities:
    • Allocating IP address blocks to internet service providers and organizations
    • Maintaining WHOIS databases for IP address ownership information
    • Developing regional policies for address management
  • Promote efficient use of IP address resources and support IPv6 adoption

Internet standards organizations

  • IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) develops and promotes internet standards
  • W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) creates web standards and guidelines
  • IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) develops networking standards
  • Key contributions:
    • IETF: TCP/IP, HTTP, DNS protocols
    • W3C: HTML, CSS, XML specifications
    • IEEE: Ethernet, Wi-Fi standards
  • Importance of open standards in promoting innovation and interoperability

Evolution of internet architecture

  • The internet architecture continuously evolves to meet growing demands for connectivity, performance, and security
  • Understanding these evolutionary trends is essential for developing forward-looking technology policies
  • Emerging architectures and technologies shape the future of internet communication and services

IPv4 to IPv6 transition

  • IPv6 addresses IPv4 address exhaustion and provides additional features
  • Key differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
    • Address space: 32-bit vs 128-bit
    • Header format: Simplified in IPv6
    • Security: IPsec built into IPv6
  • Transition mechanisms:
    • Dual-stack: Running both IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously
    • Tunneling: Encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets
    • Translation: Converting between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses
  • Challenges in IPv6 adoption include legacy system compatibility and network equipment upgrades

Content delivery networks

  • CDNs improve content delivery speed and reliability by distributing content across multiple geographic locations
  • Key components of CDNs:
    • Origin servers: Store the original content
    • Edge servers: Cache content closer to end-users
    • Load balancers: Distribute requests across multiple servers
  • Benefits of CDNs:
    • Reduced latency and improved user experience
    • Increased website availability and scalability
    • Protection against DDoS attacks
  • Impact on internet traffic patterns and content distribution economics

Software-defined networking

  • SDN separates the network control plane from the data plane
  • Enables programmable network management and automation
  • Key concepts in SDN:
    • Centralized controller: Manages network policies and flow control
    • Southbound APIs: Communication between controller and network devices
    • Northbound APIs: Interface for applications to interact with the controller
  • Benefits of SDN:
    • Improved network flexibility and scalability
    • Simplified network management and configuration
    • Enhanced network security through centralized policy enforcement

Security in internet protocols

  • Security measures in internet protocols are crucial for protecting data confidentiality, integrity, and availability
  • Understanding these security mechanisms is essential for developing effective cybersecurity policies and regulations
  • Secure protocols play a vital role in building trust in online transactions and communications

SSL/TLS encryption

  • SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security) provide secure communication over the internet
  • Key features of SSL/TLS:
    • Encryption: Protects data confidentiality
    • Authentication: Verifies the identity of communicating parties
    • Integrity: Ensures data hasn't been tampered with during transmission
  • SSL/TLS handshake process:
    • Client and server agree on cipher suite
    • Server sends its certificate for authentication
    • Key exchange for establishing a shared secret
  • Importance in securing web transactions, email communication, and other internet services

DNSSEC for DNS security

  • DNSSEC (Domain Name System Security Extensions) adds security to the DNS resolution process
  • Protects against DNS spoofing and cache poisoning attacks
  • Key components of DNSSEC:
    • Digital signatures for DNS records
    • Chain of trust from root zone to individual domain names
    • Key management and rollover procedures
  • Benefits of DNSSEC:
    • Ensures the authenticity and integrity of DNS responses
    • Provides a foundation for other security mechanisms (DANE, SMTP security)
  • Challenges in DNSSEC adoption include increased DNS response sizes and complexity in key management

IPsec for network layer security

  • IPsec (Internet Protocol Security) provides security at the IP layer
  • Supports both transport mode (endpoint-to-endpoint) and tunnel mode (gateway-to-gateway)
  • Key protocols in IPsec:
    • Authentication Header (AH): Provides integrity and authentication
    • Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP): Provides confidentiality, integrity, and authentication
    • Internet Key Exchange (IKE): Manages key exchange and security association negotiation
  • Applications of IPsec:
    • Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
    • Secure communication between network devices
    • Protection of routing protocols (BGP, OSPF)

Emerging internet technologies

  • Emerging technologies are reshaping the internet landscape and creating new possibilities for connectivity and services
  • Understanding these technologies is crucial for developing forward-looking policies that address their potential impacts and challenges
  • These innovations have far-reaching implications for various sectors, including healthcare, transportation, and smart cities

Internet of Things protocols

  • IoT protocols enable communication between connected devices and systems
  • Key IoT protocols include:
    • MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport): Lightweight publish-subscribe messaging protocol
    • CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): Web transfer protocol for resource-constrained devices
    • LwM2M (Lightweight Machine-to-Machine): Device management and service enablement protocol
  • Challenges in IoT protocols:
    • Security and privacy concerns
    • Interoperability between different protocols and platforms
    • Scalability to support billions of connected devices

5G and network slicing

  • 5G technology promises higher speeds, lower latency, and increased device connectivity
  • Network slicing allows creation of multiple virtual networks on a shared physical infrastructure
  • Key features of 5G:
    • Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) for high-speed data
    • Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communication (URLLC) for critical applications
    • Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC) for IoT connectivity
  • Network slicing benefits:
    • Tailored network characteristics for specific use cases
    • Improved resource utilization and network efficiency
    • Enhanced security through isolation of network segments

Edge computing architecture

  • Edge computing brings computation and data storage closer to the point of use
  • Reduces latency and bandwidth usage by processing data near the source
  • Key components of edge computing:
    • Edge devices: Sensors, actuators, and local processing units
    • Edge gateways: Aggregate and process data from multiple edge devices
    • Edge data centers: Provide more substantial computing resources at the network edge
  • Applications of edge computing:
    • Real-time analytics for industrial IoT
    • Augmented and virtual reality experiences
    • Autonomous vehicles and smart traffic management

Policy implications of internet architecture

  • Internet architecture design and evolution have significant implications for policy-making and regulation
  • Understanding these implications is crucial for developing effective and balanced policies that address various stakeholder concerns
  • Policy decisions in this area can impact innovation, competition, and fundamental rights in the digital realm

Net neutrality and traffic management

  • Net neutrality principles aim to ensure equal treatment of all internet traffic
  • Traffic management techniques can impact network performance and user experience
  • Key aspects of net neutrality:
    • No blocking or throttling of lawful content
    • No paid prioritization of specific content or services
    • Transparency in network management practices
  • Policy considerations:
    • Balancing network efficiency with fair access
    • Impact on innovation and competition in online services
    • Jurisdiction and enforcement challenges in a global internet

Internet censorship techniques

  • Various technical methods are used to implement internet censorship
  • Common censorship techniques include:
    • IP address blocking: Preventing access to specific IP addresses
    • DNS manipulation: Altering DNS responses to misdirect or block access
    • Deep packet inspection: Analyzing and filtering network traffic based on content
    • URL filtering: Blocking access to specific web addresses
  • Policy implications:
    • Balancing national security concerns with freedom of expression
    • Effectiveness and circumvention of censorship measures
    • Impact on global internet connectivity and information flow

Cross-border data flows

  • Internet architecture enables the free flow of data across national boundaries
  • Data localization policies can impact the efficiency and cost of internet services
  • Key considerations in cross-border data flows:
    • Data privacy and protection regulations (GDPR)
    • National security and law enforcement access to data
    • Trade agreements and digital economy implications
  • Policy challenges:
    • Harmonizing diverse national data protection laws
    • Ensuring data availability for global services while respecting local regulations
    • Balancing economic benefits of free data flow with privacy and security concerns

Future of internet architecture

  • The future of internet architecture is shaped by emerging technologies and evolving user needs
  • Understanding potential future developments is crucial for creating forward-looking policies and strategies
  • These innovations have the potential to fundamentally change how we interact with and benefit from the internet

Named Data Networking

  • NDN focuses on content-centric networking rather than host-centric addressing
  • Key features of NDN:
    • Content is addressed by name instead of IP addresses
    • In-network caching improves content delivery efficiency
    • Built-in security through content signing and verification
  • Potential benefits:
    • Improved scalability for content distribution
    • Enhanced support for mobility and intermittent connectivity
    • Simplified network management and configuration
  • Challenges in adoption include backward compatibility and redesigning existing applications

Quantum internet concepts

  • Quantum internet leverages quantum mechanics principles for secure communication
  • Key concepts in quantum internet:
    • Quantum key distribution for unbreakable encryption
    • Quantum entanglement for instantaneous information transfer
    • Quantum repeaters to extend the range of quantum networks
  • Potential applications:
    • Ultra-secure financial transactions
    • Distributed quantum computing
    • High-precision time synchronization
  • Technical challenges include maintaining quantum states over long distances and developing quantum-compatible network protocols

Decentralized web protocols

  • Decentralized web aims to reduce reliance on centralized services and improve user control
  • Key protocols and technologies:
    • IPFS (InterPlanetary File System): Distributed file storage and sharing
    • DAT (Decentralized Archive Transport): Peer-to-peer data sharing protocol
    • Blockchain-based domain name systems (Handshake, ENS)
  • Potential benefits:
    • Increased data ownership and privacy for users
    • Improved resilience against censorship and single points of failure
    • New models for content monetization and distribution
  • Challenges include scalability, user experience, and integration with existing internet infrastructure


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© 2025 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.
AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
Glossary
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