🎲Statistical Mechanics Unit 6 – Phase Transitions & Critical Phenomena

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Phase transitions involve changes in the physical properties of a system (density, magnetization, or electrical conductivity) as a function of external parameters (temperature, pressure, or magnetic field)
• Critical phenomena refer to the behavior of physical quantities near the critical point where a phase transition occurs
  • Characterized by power-law singularities in the thermodynamic functions
• Order parameter quantifies the degree of order in a system undergoing a phase transition
  • Zero in the disordered phase and non-zero in the ordered phase
• Correlation length measures the typical distance over which fluctuations in the order parameter are correlated
  • Diverges at the critical point
• Universality implies that systems with different microscopic details can exhibit similar critical behavior
  • Depends on the dimensionality of the system and the symmetry of the order parameter
• Scaling laws describe the relationship between critical exponents near the critical point
• Fluctuations become increasingly important near the critical point and can lead to large-scale collective behavior

Types of Phase Transitions

• First-order phase transitions exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy (latent heat)
  • Examples include melting, boiling, and sublimation
• Second-order (continuous) phase transitions have a continuous first derivative but a discontinuity or divergence in the second derivative of the free energy
  • Examples include ferromagnetic and superconducting transitions
• Infinite-order phase transitions display a discontinuity or divergence only in derivatives of infinite order (Kosterlitz-Thouless transition in 2D systems)
• Quantum phase transitions occur at absolute zero temperature and are driven by changes in a non-thermal parameter (pressure or magnetic field)
  • Characterized by quantum fluctuations instead of thermal fluctuations
• Topological phase transitions involve changes in the topological properties of the system (topological insulators and superconductors)
• Glass transitions occur in amorphous materials and are characterized by a dramatic slowing down of the dynamics without a clear thermodynamic signature

Thermodynamic Description

• Landau theory provides a phenomenological description of phase transitions based on symmetry considerations
• Free energy is expanded in terms of the order parameter near the critical point
  • Minimizing the free energy determines the equilibrium state of the system
• Ginzburg-Landau theory extends Landau theory by including spatial fluctuations of the order parameter
  • Describes the interface between coexisting phases and the formation of domains
• Ehrenfest classification categorizes phase transitions based on the discontinuities in the derivatives of the free energy
• Clausius-Clapeyron relation describes the slope of the coexistence line in the pressure-temperature plane for first-order transitions
• Critical exponents characterize the power-law singularities of thermodynamic quantities near the critical point
  • Obtained from the scaling behavior of the free energy
• Widom scaling hypothesis relates the critical exponents to each other through scaling relations

Order Parameters and Symmetry Breaking

• Order parameters distinguish between the ordered and disordered phases in a phase transition
  • Examples include magnetization in ferromagnets and the wavefunction in superconductors
• Symmetry breaking occurs when the system transitions from a high-symmetry (disordered) phase to a low-symmetry (ordered) phase
  • The order parameter acquires a non-zero value in the ordered phase
• Landau theory expresses the free energy as a polynomial expansion in the order parameter
  • The coefficients depend on the external parameters (temperature or magnetic field)
• Ginzburg-Landau theory introduces a spatial dependence of the order parameter
  • Describes the formation of domains and the interface between coexisting phases
• Goldstone modes are low-energy excitations that arise from the spontaneous breaking of a continuous symmetry
  • Examples include spin waves in ferromagnets and phonons in crystals
• Topological defects (vortices or dislocations) can appear in the ordered phase as a result of the symmetry breaking
  • Play a crucial role in the Kosterlitz-Thouless transition

Critical Exponents and Universality

• Critical exponents describe the power-law singularities of thermodynamic quantities near the critical point
  • Examples include the specific heat, susceptibility, and correlation length
• Universality implies that critical exponents depend only on the dimensionality of the system and the symmetry of the order parameter
  • Systems with the same critical exponents belong to the same universality class
• Scaling relations connect the critical exponents to each other
  • Derived from the scaling behavior of the free energy near the critical point
• Hyperscaling relations include the dimensionality of the system in the scaling relations
  • Valid below the upper critical dimension
• Renormalization group theory provides a framework to calculate the critical exponents
  • Based on the idea of scale invariance and the flow of the system's parameters under coarse-graining
• Experimental measurements of critical exponents can test the predictions of different theoretical models
  • High-precision experiments are required due to the narrow critical region

Landau Theory

• Landau theory is a phenomenological approach to describe phase transitions based on symmetry considerations
• The free energy is expanded in terms of the order parameter near the critical point
  • The order parameter is assumed to be small and slowly varying
• The coefficients of the expansion depend on the external parameters (temperature or magnetic field)
  • The sign of the quadratic coefficient determines the nature of the phase transition
• Minimizing the free energy with respect to the order parameter yields the equilibrium state of the system
  • First-order transitions occur when the cubic term is present and the quadratic coefficient changes sign
  • Second-order transitions occur when the cubic term is absent and the quadratic coefficient changes sign
• Landau theory can describe the behavior of the order parameter and thermodynamic quantities near the critical point
  • Provides a qualitative understanding of the phase diagram and the nature of the phase transition
• Ginzburg criterion determines the validity of Landau theory near the critical point
  • Compares the magnitude of fluctuations to the mean-field value of the order parameter
• Limitations of Landau theory include the neglect of fluctuations and the assumption of a single order parameter
  • Fails in low-dimensional systems and near the critical point where fluctuations are important

Renormalization Group Approach

• The renormalization group (RG) is a mathematical framework to study the behavior of a system at different length scales
• RG transformations involve coarse-graining the system by integrating out short-wavelength fluctuations
  • Leads to a flow in the space of coupling constants (parameters) of the system
• Fixed points of the RG flow correspond to scale-invariant systems
  • The critical point is a fixed point of the RG flow
• The flow near the fixed point determines the critical exponents and the universality class of the system
  • Relevant parameters control the flow away from the fixed point and correspond to the tuning parameters of the phase transition
  • Irrelevant parameters flow towards the fixed point and do not affect the critical behavior
• RG can be formulated in real space (block spin transformations) or in momentum space (field-theoretic RG)
• Epsilon expansion is a perturbative RG technique that expands around the upper critical dimension
  • Provides analytical expressions for the critical exponents in terms of the dimensionality of the system
• Numerical RG methods (Monte Carlo RG) can be used to study the critical behavior of systems with complex interactions or geometries

Experimental Techniques and Applications

• Scattering techniques (X-ray, neutron, or light scattering) can probe the structure and dynamics of systems near phase transitions
  • Measure the correlation length, order parameter, and critical exponents
• Calorimetry measures the heat capacity and latent heat of phase transitions
  • Determines the nature of the phase transition (first-order or continuous)
• Magnetic susceptibility measurements can identify magnetic phase transitions and determine the critical exponents
• Electrical transport measurements (resistivity or conductivity) can detect superconducting or metal-insulator transitions
• Ultrasonic attenuation and velocity measurements can probe the elastic properties of materials near structural phase transitions
• Phase transitions have applications in various fields, including condensed matter physics, materials science, and biophysics
  • Examples include the design of novel materials (high-temperature superconductors or ferroelectrics), the study of protein folding, and the behavior of complex fluids
• Critical phenomena also play a role in the understanding of emergent phenomena, such as the collective behavior of many-body systems
  • Examples include the flocking of birds, the synchronization of oscillators, and the behavior of financial markets