1.4 Nervous system
11 min read•august 21, 2024
The nervous system is the body's command center, crucial for athletic performance and injury prevention. It consists of the central and peripheral systems, working together to process sensory input, control motor output, and regulate autonomic functions. Understanding its structure and function is essential for sports medicine professionals.
In exercise, the nervous system undergoes adaptations that enhance strength, power, and skill acquisition. It plays a key role in motor unit recruitment, neuromuscular fatigue, and recovery. Neurological injuries and disorders can significantly impact athletes, making proper assessment, management, and rehabilitation vital for safe return to play.
Structure of nervous system
- Nervous system forms the body's communication network enabling rapid responses to internal and external stimuli
- Understanding nervous system structure crucial for sports medicine professionals to assess athletic performance and injury mechanisms
- Consists of specialized cells and tissues that transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body
Central vs peripheral nervous system
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- (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord
- (PNS) comprises nerves extending from CNS to rest of body
- CNS acts as command center processing information and coordinating responses
- PNS divided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) components
- Somatic nervous system controls skeletal muscles crucial for athletic movements
- Autonomic nervous system regulates internal organs affecting performance (heart rate, digestion)
Neurons and synapses
- Neurons specialized cells transmit electrical and chemical signals
- Consist of cell body, dendrites, and axon
- Dendrites receive signals while axons transmit signals to other neurons or target tissues
- Synapses junctions between neurons where neurotransmitters released
- Synaptic transmission involves presynaptic neuron releasing neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
- Postsynaptic neuron receives neurotransmitters triggering electrical or chemical changes
- allows for learning and adaptation in response to training
Neurotransmitters and receptors
- Neurotransmitters chemical messengers released by neurons at synapses
- Common neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
- Receptors specialized proteins on postsynaptic neurons bind to specific neurotransmitters
- Binding of neurotransmitters to receptors can be excitatory or inhibitory
- Excitatory neurotransmitters (glutamate) increase likelihood of postsynaptic neuron firing
- Inhibitory neurotransmitters (GABA) decrease likelihood of postsynaptic neuron firing
- Balance of excitatory and inhibitory signals crucial for proper nervous system function in athletes
Functions of nervous system
- Nervous system plays vital role in coordinating and controlling bodily functions essential for athletic performance
- Enables athletes to perceive their environment, make decisions, and execute complex movements
- Regulates internal processes to maintain homeostasis during physical exertion
Sensory input processing
- Sensory receptors detect stimuli from external environment and internal body states
- Proprioceptors in muscles and joints provide information about body position and movement
- Visual, auditory, and vestibular systems contribute to balance and spatial awareness
- Somatosensory system processes touch, pressure, temperature, and pain sensations
- Integration of sensory information occurs in various regions of brain (thalamus, sensory cortex)
- Processed sensory information guides motor planning and execution in sports
Motor output control
- primary brain region responsible for voluntary movement initiation
- Basal ganglia and fine-tune motor commands for smooth, coordinated movements
- Descending motor pathways (corticospinal tract) transmit signals from brain to spinal cord
- Alpha in spinal cord innervate skeletal muscles to produce movement
- Motor units consist of motor neuron and muscle fibers it innervates
- Size principle dictates recruitment order of motor units based on force requirements
Autonomic regulation
- Autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions crucial for athletic performance
- Divided into sympathetic ("fight or flight") and parasympathetic ("rest and digest") branches
- Sympathetic activation prepares body for physical exertion (increased heart rate, bronchodilation)
- Parasympathetic activation promotes recovery and conservation of energy (decreased heart rate, increased digestion)
- Autonomic balance shifts during exercise to meet metabolic demands of working muscles
- Regulates cardiovascular, respiratory, and thermoregulatory responses to physical activity
Nervous system in exercise
- Exercise induces acute and chronic adaptations in nervous system
- Neural changes contribute significantly to improvements in strength, power, and skill acquisition
- Understanding neural aspects of exercise crucial for optimizing training programs and preventing overtraining
Neural adaptations to training
- Increased neural drive to muscles enhances force production
- Improved motor unit synchronization leads to more efficient muscle contractions
- Reduced neural inhibition allows for greater muscle activation
- Enhanced intermuscular coordination improves movement efficiency
- Cortical reorganization occurs with skill learning and motor practice
- enables long-term changes in neural circuits related to trained movements
Neuromuscular fatigue
- Defined as exercise-induced reduction in ability to produce force or power
- Central fatigue involves changes in central nervous system affecting motor command generation
- Peripheral fatigue occurs at neuromuscular junction or within muscle fibers
- Accumulation of metabolites (lactic acid, potassium) contributes to peripheral fatigue
- Alterations in neurotransmitter levels (serotonin, dopamine) influence central fatigue
- Recovery from neuromuscular fatigue involves both central and peripheral mechanisms
Motor unit recruitment patterns
- Motor units recruited in size order from smallest to largest (size principle)
- Low-threshold motor units (Type I fibers) activated first for low-force contractions
- High-threshold motor units (Type II fibers) recruited for high-force or rapid contractions
- Rate coding increases firing frequency of active motor units to produce more force
- Training can alter recruitment patterns and motor unit firing rates
- Sports-specific movements may require selective recruitment of certain motor unit types
Neurological injuries in sports
- Neurological injuries can have severe consequences for athletes' health and performance
- Proper assessment, management, and rehabilitation crucial for safe return to play
- Prevention strategies and protective equipment play key role in reducing neurological injury risk
Concussions and traumatic brain injury
- mild traumatic brain injury caused by biomechanical forces to head or body
- Symptoms include headache, dizziness, confusion, and memory problems
- Neurometabolic cascade follows altering brain function and metabolism
- Cognitive and physical rest important components of initial concussion management
- Gradual return-to-play protocol implemented to ensure safe resumption of activities
- Long-term consequences of repeated concussions include chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)
Spinal cord injuries
- Can result from trauma to vertebral column causing damage to spinal cord
- Severity ranges from incomplete (partial loss of function) to complete (total loss of function)
- Primary injury occurs at time of impact followed by secondary injury cascade
- Cervical spine injuries most severe potentially leading to quadriplegia
- Thoracic and lumbar injuries may cause paraplegia or varying degrees of lower limb dysfunction
- Immediate immobilization and proper transport crucial for preventing further damage
Peripheral nerve injuries
- Occur when nerves in limbs or trunk damaged by compression, traction, or laceration
- Common in contact sports or due to repetitive motions
- Symptoms include weakness, numbness, and altered sensation in affected area
- Classified as neuropraxia (temporary), axonotmesis (axon damage), or neurotmesis (complete nerve transection)
- Recovery time varies depending on injury severity and location
- Rehabilitation focuses on maintaining joint mobility and preventing muscle atrophy
Nervous system disorders
- Certain neurological disorders can affect athletes' ability to participate in sports
- Understanding these conditions essential for sports medicine professionals to provide appropriate care
- Proper management can often allow athletes with neurological disorders to safely engage in physical activity
Multiple sclerosis in athletes
- Autoimmune disorder affecting central nervous system causing demyelination
- Symptoms include fatigue, weakness, balance problems, and visual disturbances
- Exercise can improve symptoms and overall quality of life for MS patients
- Aerobic exercise shown to improve cardiovascular fitness and reduce fatigue
- Resistance training can enhance strength and functional capacity
- Thermoregulatory issues common in MS patients require careful monitoring during exercise
Epilepsy and exercise
- Neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures
- Exercise generally safe and beneficial for people with well-controlled epilepsy
- Physical activity can improve seizure control, mood, and overall health
- Precautions include avoiding activities with high risk of head injury or drowning
- Importance of educating coaches and teammates about seizure first aid
- Medication adjustments may be necessary to optimize seizure control during exercise
Parkinson's disease and physical activity
- Neurodegenerative disorder affecting movement, balance, and coordination
- Exercise shown to improve motor symptoms, cognitive function, and quality of life
- Aerobic exercise enhances cardiovascular fitness and may have neuroprotective effects
- Resistance training improves strength and can help maintain functional independence
- Balance and flexibility exercises crucial for fall prevention
- Rhythmic activities (dancing, boxing) particularly beneficial for improving motor function
Neuroplasticity and rehabilitation
- Neuroplasticity refers to brain's ability to reorganize and form new neural connections
- Crucial concept in rehabilitation of neurological injuries and disorders
- Understanding neuroplasticity principles allows for development of effective treatment strategies
Principles of neuroplasticity
- Use-dependent plasticity strengthens neural pathways with repeated activation
- Task-specific training promotes reorganization of neural circuits related to practiced tasks
- Intensity and repetition of training crucial for inducing lasting neural changes
- Time-dependent plasticity highlights importance of early intervention after injury
- Competitive plasticity emphasizes need to prevent maladaptive compensatory strategies
- Age-related differences in plasticity influence rehabilitation approaches across lifespan
Neuromuscular reeducation techniques
- Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) uses specific movement patterns to improve function
- Biofeedback provides real-time information about physiological processes to enhance motor control
- Mirror therapy utilizes visual feedback to facilitate movement in affected limbs
- Constraint-induced movement therapy forces use of affected limb by restraining unaffected side
- Neurodevelopmental treatment (NDT) focuses on normalizing muscle tone and movement patterns
- Virtual reality and exergaming provide engaging environments for and rehabilitation
Cognitive rehabilitation strategies
- Attention training improves focus and concentration essential for sports performance
- Working memory exercises enhance ability to process and manipulate information
- Executive function training targets planning, problem-solving, and decision-making skills
- Dual-task training improves ability to perform cognitive and motor tasks simultaneously
- Mental imagery and visualization techniques enhance motor learning and performance
- Mindfulness and meditation practices reduce stress and improve cognitive flexibility
Neuromuscular testing
- Neuromuscular testing assesses function of nervous system and its interaction with muscles
- Provides valuable information for diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring progress
- Essential tool for sports medicine professionals in evaluating athletic performance and injury
Electromyography (EMG) basics
- Measures electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles
- Surface EMG uses electrodes on skin to record activity of muscle groups
- Needle EMG involves inserting fine needles into muscles for more precise recordings
- Provides information about muscle activation patterns, timing, and intensity
- Used to assess muscle fatigue, motor unit recruitment, and neuromuscular disorders
- Applications in sports include analyzing technique, optimizing performance, and injury prevention
Nerve conduction studies
- Assess function of peripheral nerves by measuring speed and strength of electrical signals
- Involves stimulating nerves and recording responses in muscles or sensory organs
- Helps diagnose conditions such as carpal tunnel syndrome, radiculopathies, and neuropathies
- Provides information about nerve conduction velocity, amplitude, and latency
- Can differentiate between axonal and demyelinating nerve injuries
- Useful for monitoring recovery and guiding treatment in sports-related nerve injuries
Balance and proprioception assessment
- Evaluates ability to maintain postural stability and sense body position in space
- Static balance tests assess ability to maintain stable posture (single-leg stance, Romberg test)
- Dynamic balance tests evaluate stability during movement (Star Excursion Balance Test)
- Computerized posturography provides quantitative analysis of postural control
- assessed through joint position sense and kinesthesia tests
- Balance and proprioception crucial for injury prevention and athletic performance
Neuroendocrine interactions
- Nervous and endocrine systems work together to regulate bodily functions
- Neuroendocrine interactions play crucial role in exercise response and adaptation
- Understanding these interactions essential for optimizing athletic performance and recovery
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
- Key neuroendocrine system regulating stress response and metabolism
- Hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in response to stress
- CRH stimulates anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- ACTH triggers adrenal glands to produce cortisol, primary stress hormone
- Cortisol mobilizes energy resources and modulates immune function
- Chronic activation of HPA axis can lead to overtraining syndrome and decreased performance
Stress response in exercise
- Acute exercise activates sympathetic nervous system and HPA axis
- Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine) released to increase heart rate and blood flow
- Cortisol levels rise to mobilize energy substrates and regulate inflammation
- Growth hormone and testosterone increase to promote tissue repair and muscle growth
- Proper balance between stress and recovery crucial for optimal adaptation
- Monitoring stress hormones can help guide training intensity and prevent overtraining
Neurotransmitters vs hormones
- Neurotransmitters chemical messengers acting locally at synapses
- Hormones chemical messengers released into bloodstream acting on distant target tissues
- Some molecules (norepinephrine) can function as both neurotransmitter and hormone
- Neurotransmitters have rapid, short-lived effects on neural signaling
- Hormones typically have slower onset but longer-lasting effects on metabolism and physiology
- Both systems interact to regulate various aspects of exercise response and adaptation
Neurological aspects of performance
- Nervous system plays crucial role in athletic performance beyond basic motor control
- Understanding neurological factors can help optimize training and competition strategies
- Integrating neurological principles into sports training can enhance skill acquisition and execution
Motor learning and skill acquisition
- Process of acquiring and refining motor skills through practice and experience
- Involves three stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous
- Cognitive stage characterized by high mental effort and inconsistent performance
- Associative stage involves refining movement patterns and reducing errors
- Autonomous stage achieved when skill becomes automatic requiring minimal conscious effort
- Principles of motor learning include specificity, variability, and contextual interference
Reaction time and agility
- Reaction time measures interval between stimulus presentation and initiation of response
- Simple reaction time involves single stimulus and response
- Choice reaction time requires selection between multiple possible responses
- Agility combines reaction time, speed, balance, and coordination
- Influenced by factors such as arousal level, fatigue, and practice
- Can be improved through specific training techniques (plyometrics, sport-specific drills)
Mental imagery and visualization
- Mental rehearsal of motor skills or performance scenarios
- Activates similar neural pathways as physical practice
- Enhances motor learning, skill acquisition, and performance
- Can improve confidence, focus, and anxiety management
- Effective for injury rehabilitation and maintaining skills during forced inactivity
- Combines kinesthetic (feel of movement) and visual elements for maximum effectiveness
Neuroprotection in sports
- Strategies aimed at preserving nervous system health and function in athletes
- Crucial for preventing long-term consequences of neurological injuries
- Involves multifaceted approach combining nutrition, pharmacology, and equipment design
Nutritional strategies for neuroprotection
- Omega-3 fatty acids (DHA, EPA) support brain health and may reduce inflammation
- Antioxidants (vitamins C, E, beta-carotene) protect against oxidative stress
- Curcumin exhibits anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties
- Creatine may have neuroprotective effects in traumatic brain injury
- Adequate hydration crucial for maintaining cerebral blood flow and cognitive function
- Proper glucose management important for brain energy metabolism during exercise
Pharmacological interventions
- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may reduce neuroinflammation post-injury
- Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil) investigated for cognitive enhancement
- Methylphenidate studied for improving cognitive function after traumatic brain injury
- Amantadine may accelerate in severe traumatic brain injury
- Melatonin shows promise as neuroprotective agent due to antioxidant properties
- Caution required when considering pharmacological interventions in athletes due to potential side effects and doping regulations
Equipment and rule modifications
- Helmet design improvements focus on reducing rotational forces in impact sports
- Mouthguards may help dissipate forces transmitted to brain during impacts
- Neck strengthening exercises proposed to reduce risk of concussion
- Rule changes in contact sports aim to reduce high-risk collisions and tackles
- Proper technique instruction crucial for minimizing risk of neurological injuries
- Gradual return-to-play protocols implemented to ensure safe recovery from concussions
Key Terms to Review (27)
Adele Diamond: Adele Diamond is a prominent neuroscientist known for her groundbreaking research on executive functions, particularly in relation to cognitive development in children. Her work has significantly influenced our understanding of the interplay between the brain and behavior, especially regarding how executive functions impact learning and decision-making processes.
Central Nervous System: The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body. It plays a crucial role in coordinating sensory input, motor output, and higher cognitive functions, making it vital for overall bodily function and response to stimuli.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is a major structure located at the back of the brain that plays a crucial role in coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture. It processes information from the sensory systems, spinal cord, and other parts of the brain to fine-tune motor activity, allowing for smooth and precise movements.
Cognitive Rehabilitation: Cognitive rehabilitation is a therapeutic process designed to improve cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills in individuals who have experienced cognitive impairments due to injury, illness, or neurological disorders. This approach utilizes various strategies and exercises to help patients regain their cognitive abilities, ultimately enhancing their overall quality of life. The techniques involved in cognitive rehabilitation often rely on understanding the nervous system's plasticity, which allows for adaptations and improvements in brain function.
Concussion: A concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by a blow to the head or body that results in the brain moving rapidly back and forth within the skull. This sudden movement can cause chemical changes in the brain and damage brain cells, leading to a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms. Understanding concussions is crucial for effective management and recovery, particularly in sports settings where return-to-play decisions must be made carefully, and immediate care protocols are essential for safety.
Concussion: A concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury that occurs when the brain is shaken inside the skull, often resulting from a blow to the head or a violent movement of the head and body. This injury can disrupt normal brain function and lead to a range of symptoms including confusion, dizziness, and loss of consciousness. Understanding concussions is essential as they relate to the nervous system's response to trauma, the importance of protective equipment in preventing such injuries, and the critical steps involved in on-field emergency management when a concussion is suspected.
Electromyography: Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure that assesses the electrical activity of muscles and the nerve cells that control them. By placing electrodes on the skin or inserting needles into the muscle, EMG can measure muscle response during rest and contraction, providing valuable insights into neuromuscular function. This technique plays an important role in understanding both normal muscle physiology and identifying potential issues related to muscle or nerve disorders.
Functional recovery: Functional recovery refers to the process by which individuals regain their abilities and skills after an injury or disruption, allowing them to return to their previous levels of functioning. This concept is especially relevant in contexts involving the nervous system and musculoskeletal injuries, as it encompasses both physical rehabilitation and neurological adaptation. Successful functional recovery often relies on a combination of therapeutic interventions, neural plasticity, and the body's natural healing processes.
Motor cortex: The motor cortex is a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe that is responsible for planning, controlling, and executing voluntary movements. It plays a crucial role in coordinating muscle activity and fine-tuning motor skills, making it essential for physical activities and sports performance. This area works closely with other parts of the nervous system to send signals to muscles throughout the body.
Motor learning: Motor learning is the process through which individuals acquire and refine skills involving movement, resulting in a relatively permanent change in performance due to practice or experience. This process is closely tied to how the nervous system functions, as it involves the integration of sensory information, motor responses, and feedback mechanisms that lead to skill acquisition. Understanding motor learning is essential for developing sports-specific skills and improving performance in athletic activities.
Motor neurons: Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells responsible for transmitting signals from the central nervous system to muscles, enabling movement. They play a crucial role in the voluntary and involuntary control of muscle contractions, allowing the body to perform actions such as walking, lifting, and reflex responses. These neurons communicate with muscle fibers at the neuromuscular junction, where the transmission of signals occurs.
Muscle recruitment: Muscle recruitment refers to the process by which the nervous system activates specific motor units in a muscle to generate force during physical activity. This mechanism is essential for coordinating muscle contractions and varies based on the intensity and type of movement being performed. Understanding how muscle recruitment works helps in grasping how strength training, endurance, and overall motor control are achieved through the nervous system's influence on muscle fibers.
Nerve Conduction Study: A nerve conduction study (NCS) is a medical test that measures the speed and strength of electrical signals traveling through a nerve. This test helps in diagnosing various nerve disorders by assessing the function of peripheral nerves, which are crucial for transmitting signals between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body.
Nerve conduction study: A nerve conduction study is a medical test that measures the speed and strength of electrical signals traveling through peripheral nerves. This test is crucial for diagnosing nerve disorders, as it helps identify conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome, neuropathies, and other nerve-related issues. By assessing the function of nerves, healthcare providers can better understand the underlying causes of a patient's symptoms.
Nerve entrapment: Nerve entrapment occurs when a nerve is compressed or constricted, leading to pain, tingling, or weakness in the affected area. This condition can arise from various factors, including repetitive movements, trauma, or anatomical abnormalities. Understanding nerve entrapment is crucial for recognizing its impact on the nervous system and the resulting implications for mobility and function.
Nerve impingement: Nerve impingement refers to a condition where a nerve is compressed or pinched, leading to pain, numbness, or weakness in the affected area. This occurs when surrounding tissues, such as bones, cartilage, or muscles, exert pressure on the nerve, disrupting its normal function. Understanding nerve impingement is crucial as it often relates to broader issues within the nervous system and can significantly impact movement and sensation.
Neuropathy: Neuropathy refers to a range of conditions that involve damage to the peripheral nerves, which can lead to symptoms like pain, weakness, and numbness. This damage disrupts the normal functioning of nerves, affecting their ability to transmit signals between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body. Neuropathy can arise from various causes including diabetes, trauma, infections, and toxins, and it plays a critical role in understanding how nerve dysfunction can contribute to fatigue and overall health.
Neuroplasticity: Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This remarkable capacity allows for adaptation in response to injury, experience, or learning, making it essential for rehabilitation and enhancing cognitive functions. The concept underscores how the nervous system is not static but can change its structure and function based on environmental factors and individual activities.
Neurotransmission: Neurotransmission is the process through which signaling molecules, known as neurotransmitters, are released by a neuron to transmit signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands across a synapse. This process is vital for communication within the nervous system, allowing for various functions like movement, mood regulation, and cognitive processes. Understanding neurotransmission is essential for grasping how the nervous system operates and responds to stimuli.
Parasympathetic Recovery: Parasympathetic recovery refers to the process by which the body returns to a state of rest and relaxation following a period of stress or intense physical activity, primarily driven by the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. This system is responsible for promoting restorative functions in the body, such as lowering heart rate and enhancing digestion. During parasympathetic recovery, the body gradually shifts from a heightened state of arousal to one of balance and restoration, which is essential for overall health and optimal performance.
Peripheral Nervous System: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a major component of the nervous system that connects the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs. It plays a crucial role in transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles, facilitating communication throughout the body.
Proprioception: Proprioception is the body's ability to sense its position and movement in space, allowing for the coordination of actions and balance. This sense plays a crucial role in how we perform physical activities, as it integrates information from muscles, tendons, and joints with input from the nervous system to maintain stability and control. Understanding proprioception helps in recognizing how movements are executed and how the body maintains equilibrium during various physical tasks.
Reflex Arc: A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action, allowing for a quick response to stimuli without the involvement of conscious thought. It typically involves sensory neurons that detect a stimulus, interneurons in the spinal cord that process the information, and motor neurons that trigger an immediate response in muscles. This process is vital for protecting the body from harm and plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis.
Roger Bannister: Roger Bannister was a British middle-distance runner who became the first person to run a mile in under four minutes on May 6, 1954. His achievement not only set a new world record but also represented a significant milestone in sports history, demonstrating the potential of human athletic performance and inspiring countless athletes. Bannister's success is often linked to the psychological aspects of performance, showcasing how mental barriers can be overcome.
Sensory Neurons: Sensory neurons are specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from the body to the central nervous system. They play a crucial role in allowing the brain to perceive and interpret sensory stimuli, such as touch, sound, taste, sight, and smell, enabling an organism to interact with its environment effectively.
Sympathetic response: The sympathetic response is a physiological reaction initiated by the sympathetic nervous system that prepares the body for 'fight or flight' during stressful situations. This response is characterized by increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and the release of adrenaline, all of which enhance the body’s ability to respond quickly to perceived threats. It plays a crucial role in the overall function of the nervous system by enabling rapid adjustments to maintain homeostasis in times of stress.
Synaptic Plasticity: Synaptic plasticity is the ability of synapses, the connections between neurons, to strengthen or weaken over time in response to increases or decreases in their activity. This phenomenon is crucial for learning and memory, as it allows for the adaptation of neural circuits based on experiences and environmental changes. Synaptic plasticity encompasses various mechanisms, including long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), which are key processes involved in how information is stored and retrieved in the nervous system.