8.1 Biomechanics of running and sprinting
5 min read•july 30, 2024
Running and sprinting are fundamental movements in sports, with distinct biomechanical characteristics. This section breaks down the gait cycle, joint mechanics, and muscle activation patterns that drive these high-speed locomotions.
Understanding the biomechanics of running and sprinting is crucial for optimizing performance and preventing injuries. We'll explore how factors like footwear, surface conditions, and training techniques can impact an athlete's speed, efficiency, and overall running mechanics.
Gait Cycle Phases
Stance and Swing Phases
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- Gait cycle in running and sprinting consists of two main phases
- begins with initial contact and ends with toe-off
- Comprises 30-40% of gait cycle in running
- Comprises 20-30% of gait cycle in sprinting
- occurs from toe-off to next initial contact
- Involves three sub-phases: initial swing, mid-swing, and terminal swing
- begins with initial contact and ends with toe-off
- Stance phase subdivides into braking and propulsion sub-phases
- Duration and force application differ between running and sprinting
- Flight phase (float) occurs when both feet are off the ground
- Two distinct flight phases in a complete gait cycle for running and sprinting
Spatiotemporal Parameters
- measures distance between successive foot strikes of opposite feet
- calculates number of steps taken per minute
- quantifies duration of foot-ground contact during stance phase
- These parameters differ between running and sprinting, affecting overall performance
- Sprinting typically involves
- Longer step length
- Higher step frequency
- Shorter contact time compared to distance running
Foot Strike Patterns
- Initial contact in sprinting typically occurs with forefoot or midfoot
- Distance running may involve heel strike, midfoot strike, or forefoot strike
- Foot strike patterns influence
- Impact forces
- Joint loading
- Muscle activation patterns throughout the lower extremity
Running and Sprinting Mechanics
Joint Kinematics
- Joint angles and angular velocities crucial for determining and frequency
- Hip joint: Flexion during swing phase, extension during stance phase
- Knee joint: Flexion during early stance and swing, extension during late stance
- Ankle joint: Dorsiflexion during swing, plantarflexion during push-off
- Sprinting involves greater ranges of motion compared to distance running
- Increased hip and knee flexion during swing phase
- More pronounced ankle plantarflexion during push-off
Ground Reaction Forces
- (GRF) during stance phase significantly impact performance and injury risk
- Vertical component: Represents body weight support and vertical acceleration
- Anterior-posterior component: Indicates braking and
- Mediolateral component: Reflects lateral stability and balance
- GRF patterns differ between running and sprinting
- Sprinting produces higher peak forces and loading rates
- Running shows more pronounced impact peak in vertical GRF
Energy Storage and Return
- (SSC) in lower extremities enhances efficiency and power output
- stores
- Rapid concentric contraction releases stored energy
- Elastic energy storage and return in tendons and ligaments contribute to performance
- Achilles tendon acts as a spring, storing and releasing energy during stance phase
- Plantar fascia supports foot arch, contributing to energy return during push-off
Upper Body Mechanics
- Arm swing mechanics contribute to balance, momentum, and overall efficiency
- Amplitude: Greater in sprinting compared to distance running
- Frequency: Increases with running speed
- Trunk lean affects center of mass (COM) positioning and force production
- Forward lean more pronounced in sprinting
- Helps redirect GRF for horizontal propulsion
- Pelvic rotation influences stride length and overall running mechanics
- Greater rotation observed in sprinting compared to distance running
Muscle Activation in Running
Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)
- SSC enhances force production in running and sprinting
- Eccentric phase: Muscle lengthens while under tension (energy storage)
- : Brief transition between eccentric and concentric actions
- : Muscle shortens rapidly, utilizing stored elastic energy
- SSC efficiency improves with training, leading to enhanced performance
- Reduced ground contact time
- Increased power output during push-off
Muscle Activation Patterns
- studies reveal specific muscle activation sequences
- : Active during late swing and early stance for hip extension
- : Activate during late swing for knee flexion and hip extension
- : Eccentrically contract during early stance for shock absorption
- ###-soleus_complex_0###: Active during mid to late stance for ankle plantarflexion
- Co-activation of agonist and antagonist muscles contributes to joint stability
- Quadriceps and hamstrings co-activate around the knee joint
- Tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius co-activate around the ankle joint
Muscle Function in Running Phases
- Stance phase muscle activity
- Gluteus maximus, hamstrings, and gastrocnemius-soleus generate propulsive forces
- Quadriceps eccentrically contract for shock absorption and knee stability
- Swing phase muscle activity
- Hip flexors () initiate leg swing
- Hamstrings decelerate the swinging leg before foot strike
- Core muscles maintain posture and facilitate efficient force transfer
- and provide spinal stability
- contribute to trunk rotation and pelvic stability
Footwear and Surface Impact
Shoe Design Features
- Cushioning properties affect impact forces and loading rates
- Softer midsoles reduce initial impact but may increase overall stance time
- Firmer midsoles provide better energy return but transmit higher impact forces
- Midsole stiffness influences foot strike patterns and joint
- Stiffer midsoles increase ankle joint moment and power output
- More flexible midsoles allow for greater foot motion and muscle activation
- Heel-to-toe drop affects foot strike patterns and lower limb muscle activation
- Higher drop (10-12mm) promotes heel striking
- Lower drop (0-4mm) encourages midfoot or forefoot striking
Surface Characteristics
- Surface stiffness impacts ground reaction forces and joint loading
- Softer surfaces (grass) reduce impact forces but increase energy absorption
- Harder surfaces (concrete) increase impact forces but provide better energy return
- Coefficient of friction affects traction and performance
- Higher friction (rubber track) allows for greater force application
- Lower friction (wet surfaces) reduces push-off effectiveness and increases injury risk
- Track surfaces influence sprinting performance
- Synthetic tracks provide consistent energy return and traction
- Natural surfaces may vary in firmness and traction depending on weather conditions
Footwear-Surface Interaction
- Optimal traction depends on both shoe outsole design and surface properties
- Spike configurations in sprint shoes maximize traction on track surfaces
- Lug patterns in trail running shoes enhance grip on uneven terrain
- Energy return characteristics result from combined shoe and surface properties
- Highly responsive midsole materials (carbon fiber plates) enhance energy return
- Track surfaces with optimal stiffness complement shoe design for maximum performance
- Shoe mass and distribution affect swing phase mechanics
- Lighter shoes reduce moment of inertia, potentially improving running economy
- Mass distribution in shoe design can influence foot and ankle kinematics during swing
Key Terms to Review (32)
Amortization phase: The amortization phase refers to the stage in a running or sprinting cycle where the body absorbs the impact of landing and prepares for the subsequent push-off. During this phase, the athlete's muscles and joints undergo a series of actions to dissipate forces and store elastic energy, which is crucial for an efficient transition into the propulsion phase. This process is integral to optimizing performance and minimizing injury risks, as it allows for effective energy transfer and shock absorption.
Angular motion: Angular motion refers to the rotational movement of an object around a central point or axis. This type of motion is crucial in understanding how athletes perform movements in sports, particularly those that involve turning or spinning, like running and sprinting. Angular motion is characterized by concepts such as angular displacement, velocity, and acceleration, all of which play a role in optimizing performance and reducing injury risk in sports activities.
Biomechanical Efficiency: Biomechanical efficiency refers to the optimal use of mechanical principles to maximize performance while minimizing energy expenditure during movement. This concept is crucial in various sports and physical activities, as it allows athletes to achieve greater results with less effort, enhancing their overall performance and reducing the risk of injury.
Concentric Phase: The concentric phase refers to the part of muscle contraction where the muscle shortens as it exerts force, typically during activities like running and sprinting. This phase is critical for generating propulsion and speed, as muscles actively work against resistance to lift the body or propel it forward. Understanding this phase helps in analyzing movement patterns and optimizing performance in various athletic activities.
Contact time: Contact time refers to the duration that a foot remains in contact with the ground during running or sprinting. This metric is crucial in analyzing the biomechanics of running as it influences performance, speed, and efficiency. The duration of contact time can vary based on factors such as running speed, technique, and the surface being run on, impacting how forces are absorbed and generated during each stride.
Dynamic Systems Theory: Dynamic systems theory is a framework used to understand complex movements and behaviors in biological systems, focusing on the interactions between various components within a system. It highlights how factors such as physical laws, environmental influences, and individual capabilities come together to shape movement patterns, particularly in activities like running and sprinting where coordination and adaptability are crucial.
Eccentric Muscle Action: Eccentric muscle action occurs when a muscle lengthens under tension while resisting an external force, such as gravity. This type of contraction is crucial for controlling movement and stabilizing joints, especially during activities like running and sprinting, where the body needs to absorb impact forces and maintain balance.
Elastic energy: Elastic energy is the potential energy stored in an object when it is deformed elastically, meaning it can return to its original shape after the applied force is removed. In the context of running and sprinting, elastic energy plays a crucial role in enhancing performance by allowing athletes to utilize the stored energy in their muscles and tendons, resulting in more efficient movement and reduced energy expenditure.
Electromyography (emg): Electromyography (EMG) is a diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles, providing insights into muscle function and coordination during movement. By analyzing the electrical signals generated by muscles, it can help in understanding muscle activation patterns, fatigue, and performance during activities such as running and sprinting, as well as inform strategies for injury prevention through improved technique.
Gastrocnemius: The gastrocnemius is a major muscle located in the back of the lower leg, forming the prominent bulk of the calf. It plays a vital role in activities that involve running and sprinting by contributing to plantarflexion of the foot and providing propulsion during push-off. Its strength and function are crucial for effective running mechanics and overall athletic performance.
Gastrocnemius-soleus complex: The gastrocnemius-soleus complex consists of two major muscles in the calf: the gastrocnemius, which is a superficial muscle with two heads, and the soleus, which lies underneath the gastrocnemius. Together, these muscles play a crucial role in plantar flexion of the ankle, which is vital for activities such as running and sprinting. Their proper functioning influences both performance and injury risk during dynamic movements like running.
Gluteus maximus: The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the human body, located in the posterior region, and plays a vital role in various movements such as hip extension, outward rotation, and stabilization of the pelvis. It is particularly important in activities that involve running and sprinting, as it generates powerful forces necessary for propulsion and maintaining posture during these dynamic actions.
Ground Reaction Forces: Ground reaction forces (GRFs) are the forces exerted by the ground on a body in contact with it, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that the body exerts on the ground. These forces play a critical role in understanding human movement, as they directly impact performance and injury risk across various sports activities.
Hamstrings: The hamstrings are a group of three muscles located at the back of the thigh, responsible for bending the knee and extending the hip joint. These muscles play a crucial role in many athletic movements, as they work together to control leg motion during activities such as running, sprinting, and cycling. Understanding the hamstrings is essential for analyzing performance and preventing injuries in sports.
Iliopsoas: The iliopsoas is a major muscle group in the hip that consists of the psoas major and iliacus muscles. This muscle group is essential for hip flexion and plays a significant role in stabilizing the pelvis and spine during various movements, particularly running and sprinting, where powerful leg lifts and quick directional changes are required.
Kinematics: Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects without considering the forces that cause the motion. This field focuses on parameters such as displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time, which are critical for understanding how athletes move and perform in various sports.
Kinetics: Kinetics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the forces acting on and within a body, and the resulting motion caused by these forces. This concept is essential in understanding how various forces influence movement, providing insights into athletic performance, injury prevention, and equipment design.
Linear motion: Linear motion refers to the movement of an object along a straight path, where all points of the object move the same distance in a given amount of time. This concept is fundamental in understanding how athletes perform movements and how forces act on them, making it relevant across various disciplines such as anatomy, biomechanics, and kinematics.
Multifidus: The multifidus is a group of muscles located along the spine, specifically in the lower back, that plays a vital role in stabilizing the vertebral column during movement. These muscles are essential for maintaining proper posture and facilitating efficient movement patterns while running and sprinting. Strong multifidus muscles contribute to effective load transfer and help prevent injuries by supporting the lumbar region during dynamic activities.
Newton's Laws of Motion: Newton's Laws of Motion are three fundamental principles that describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting on it, and the body's motion in response to those forces. These laws explain how friction, air resistance, and applied forces influence athletic performance and various physical activities, providing a framework for understanding motion in sports.
Obliques: Obliques are a group of muscles located on the sides of the abdomen that play a crucial role in trunk rotation, lateral flexion, and stabilization. These muscles are key players in maintaining proper posture and providing support during dynamic movements such as running and sprinting, helping to transfer forces effectively between the upper and lower body.
Overuse Injuries: Overuse injuries occur when repetitive stress is placed on muscles, tendons, and bones without adequate time for recovery. These injuries are common in athletes who engage in sports that involve repetitive motions, leading to chronic pain and discomfort if not managed properly.
Propulsive forces: Propulsive forces are the forces generated by the body during running and sprinting that propel the athlete forward. These forces are primarily produced through the action of the legs and feet pushing against the ground, allowing for efficient movement and acceleration. Understanding these forces is essential for optimizing performance and minimizing the risk of injury in athletes.
Quadriceps: The quadriceps, commonly referred to as the quads, is a group of four muscles located at the front of the thigh that play a crucial role in knee extension and hip flexion. These muscles are essential for many sports movements, providing strength and stability during activities such as running, cycling, and wheelchair sports. The quadriceps not only contribute to athletic performance but also help in maintaining proper biomechanics and reducing the risk of injury during dynamic movements.
Stance Phase: The stance phase is the part of the gait cycle where the foot is in contact with the ground, providing support and stability during running and sprinting. This phase is critical for absorbing impact forces, maintaining balance, and generating propulsion for the next phase of movement. Understanding the mechanics of the stance phase helps in analyzing performance and reducing injury risk in athletes.
Step Frequency: Step frequency refers to the number of steps a runner takes per minute during running or sprinting. This metric is critical in understanding running efficiency, speed, and overall biomechanics, as it influences both the runner's gait and the forces exerted on the body.
Step length: Step length is the distance covered between successive points of contact by the same foot during walking or running. It plays a crucial role in determining overall gait mechanics and performance, influencing factors such as speed, efficiency, and energy expenditure during running and sprinting.
Stretch-Shortening Cycle: The stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) is a natural muscle function that occurs when a muscle is pre-stretched and then immediately followed by a rapid contraction, allowing for enhanced force production. This mechanism plays a crucial role in various athletic movements, enhancing power and efficiency by utilizing elastic energy stored in the muscles and tendons during the stretching phase.
Stride frequency: Stride frequency refers to the number of strides taken per unit of time during running or sprinting, typically measured in strides per minute (spm). This concept is crucial for understanding how athletes optimize their running mechanics, as it impacts speed, efficiency, and overall performance. A higher stride frequency can lead to faster speeds but may require greater energy expenditure, making it an essential consideration in training and competition strategies.
Stride Length: Stride length refers to the distance covered in one complete gait cycle, from the point of initial contact of one foot to the point of initial contact of the same foot in the next step. This measure is crucial as it directly impacts running efficiency, speed, and overall biomechanics, influencing how a runner interacts with the ground and utilizes energy. Understanding stride length is key for analyzing running mechanics, optimizing performance, and designing appropriate footwear.
Swing phase: The swing phase is the portion of the gait cycle in which the foot is off the ground and moving forward in preparation for the next step. During this phase, the leg moves through a series of motions that include flexion at the hip and knee, which are crucial for efficient running and sprinting. The swing phase is essential for maintaining momentum and optimizing speed as it helps propel the body forward.
Transverse abdominis: The transverse abdominis is a deep abdominal muscle that plays a crucial role in stabilizing the core and pelvis. It acts like a natural corset, providing support to the spine during various movements and activities, including running and sprinting. This muscle is essential for maintaining proper posture and balance, especially during dynamic movements, making it vital in sports and athletic performance.