6.2 Hume's critique of miracles

David Hume's critique of miracles challenges the credibility of supernatural events that violate natural laws. He argues that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and that it's more reasonable to doubt miracle accounts than accept them.

Hume's arguments have had a lasting impact on debates about faith and reason. His skepticism towards miracles influenced the development of naturalism and scientific thinking, while also prompting religious thinkers to reconsider how divine action might be understood in light of modern knowledge.

Definition of miracles

• In the context of Hume's critique, miracles are understood as events that violate the established laws of nature
• Miracles are seen as divine interventions that transcend the ordinary course of the natural world
• Hume's definition of miracles sets the stage for his skeptical analysis of their credibility and possibility

Hume's understanding of miracles

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• Hume defines a miracle as a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the Deity or by the interposition of some invisible agent
• He emphasizes that miracles are not merely extraordinary events, but violations of the very laws that govern the natural world
• Hume's understanding of miracles is rooted in his empiricist philosophy, which holds that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and logical reasoning

Violations of laws of nature

• Hume argues that miracles, by definition, contradict the uniform experience of the laws of nature
• He contends that the laws of nature are established through repeated observation and experimentation, and any event that violates these laws is inherently improbable
• Hume's conception of miracles as violations of natural laws sets a high bar for their credibility and poses a challenge to their acceptance

Hume's arguments against miracles

• Hume presents several arguments to cast doubt on the credibility of miracle claims and the rationality of believing in them
• He approaches the issue from an empiricist and skeptical perspective, emphasizing the need for rigorous evidence and critical examination
• Hume's arguments against miracles have had a significant impact on the philosophical and theological debates surrounding the topic

Miracles as highly improbable

• Hume contends that miracles, by their very nature, are extremely unlikely events that go against the uniform experience of the laws of nature
• He argues that the probability of a miracle occurring is always lower than the probability of the testimony about the miracle being false or mistaken
• Hume asserts that it is more reasonable to believe that the witness is deceived or deceiving than to accept the occurrence of a genuine miracle

Lack of reliable witnesses

• Hume points out that most miracle claims lack reliable and credible witnesses
• He argues that the testimony of witnesses is often tainted by factors such as enthusiasm, credulity, and the love of wonder
• Hume contends that the character and qualifications of witnesses must be carefully scrutinized before accepting their testimony about miraculous events
  • He notes that many miracle claims originate from people who are not of sufficient integrity or intelligence to be trusted
  • Hume also highlights the tendency of witnesses to exaggerate or embellish their accounts over time

Natural explanations vs supernatural claims

• Hume argues that it is more reasonable to seek natural explanations for seemingly miraculous events than to attribute them to supernatural causes
• He contends that extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence, and that the burden of proof lies with those making the miraculous claims
• Hume suggests that many alleged miracles can be explained through natural means, such as coincidence, misperception, or fraud
  • For example, a seemingly miraculous healing may be attributed to the placebo effect or spontaneous remission rather than divine intervention
  • Similarly, a purported prophecy may be the result of lucky guesswork or retroactive interpretation rather than genuine foreknowledge

Occurrence in ignorant and barbarous nations

• Hume observes that miracle claims are more prevalent in ignorant and barbarous nations, where people are more prone to superstition and credulity
• He argues that the lack of education and critical thinking in these societies makes them more susceptible to accepting miraculous stories without proper scrutiny
• Hume suggests that the association of miracles with ignorant and barbarous nations casts doubt on their credibility and universality
  • For instance, he notes that miracle claims are more common in ancient and medieval times than in the enlightened era of his own day
  • Hume also points out that different cultures and religions have their own competing miracle claims, undermining the uniqueness and veracity of any particular set of miracles

Association with false religions

• Hume argues that the occurrence of miracle claims in support of false religions undermines the credibility of miracles in general
• He contends that if miracles can be used to support contradictory religious beliefs, then they cannot serve as reliable evidence for the truth of any particular religion
• Hume suggests that the association of miracles with false religions casts doubt on the divine origin and purpose of such events
  • For example, he notes that both Christianity and Islam claim miraculous events in support of their respective faiths, despite their theological differences
  • Hume also points out that many pagan religions have their own miracle stories, which are dismissed by adherents of monotheistic faiths as mere superstition

Hume's evidentiary standards

• Hume sets a high evidentiary bar for accepting miracle claims, arguing that extraordinary events require extraordinary evidence
• He contends that the evidence for miracles must be proportional to their improbability and that the burden of proof lies with those making the miraculous claims
• Hume's evidentiary standards reflect his empiricist and skeptical approach to knowledge, emphasizing the need for rigorous observation and logical reasoning

Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence

• Hume argues that the more extraordinary a claim is, the stronger the evidence must be to support it
• He contends that miracle claims, being violations of the laws of nature, are inherently extraordinary and thus require an exceptionally high level of evidence
• Hume suggests that the evidence for miracles must be so strong that its falsehood would be more miraculous than the miracle itself
  • For example, he argues that the testimony of a few individuals is not sufficient to establish the occurrence of a miraculous event that contradicts the uniform experience of humanity
  • Hume also notes that even if a miracle claim is supported by seemingly reliable witnesses, there is still the possibility of deception or delusion

Proportioning belief to evidence

• Hume argues that belief should be proportioned to the strength of the evidence supporting it
• He contends that the credibility of a miracle claim must be weighed against the credibility of the testimony and the prior probability of the event
• Hume suggests that it is more reasonable to disbelieve a miracle claim than to accept it, given the inherent improbability of such events and the fallibility of human testimony
  • For instance, he argues that it is more likely that a witness is mistaken or lying than that a genuine miracle has occurred
  • Hume also notes that even if a miracle claim is supported by multiple witnesses, the possibility of collusion or collective delusion cannot be ruled out

Impossibility of miraculous events

• Hume argues that the very concept of a miracle, as a violation of the laws of nature, is inherently impossible
• He contends that the laws of nature are established through uniform experience and that any event that contradicts them is, by definition, impossible
• Hume suggests that the impossibility of miracles undermines the rationality of believing in them, regardless of the evidence presented
  • For example, he argues that even if a miracle claim were supported by seemingly incontrovertible evidence, it would still be more reasonable to doubt the evidence than to accept the occurrence of an impossible event
  • Hume also notes that the concept of a miracle presupposes the existence of a divine being who can suspend the laws of nature, which is itself a matter of philosophical and theological debate

Critiques of Hume's arguments

• While Hume's critique of miracles has been influential, it has also been subject to various criticisms and counterarguments
• Some critics argue that Hume's arguments are based on questionable assumptions and that they do not conclusively disprove the possibility of miracles
• The critiques of Hume's arguments highlight the ongoing philosophical and theological debates surrounding the nature and credibility of miraculous events

Begging the question against miracles

• Some critics argue that Hume's definition of miracles as violations of the laws of nature begs the question against their possibility
• They contend that Hume assumes the inviolability of natural laws and the impossibility of divine intervention, which is the very point at issue in the debate over miracles
• Critics suggest that Hume's argument is circular, as it presupposes the impossibility of miracles in order to prove their impossibility
  • For example, they argue that Hume's definition of miracles as violations of natural laws prejudges the question of whether such violations can occur
  • Critics also note that Hume's assumption of the uniformity of nature is itself a philosophical and empirical question that cannot be taken for granted

Dismissal of credible testimony

• Some critics argue that Hume too readily dismisses the testimony of credible witnesses in favor of his philosophical presumptions
• They contend that Hume's blanket skepticism towards testimony fails to account for the possibility of reliable and trustworthy witnesses
• Critics suggest that Hume's dismissal of credible testimony is based on an overly pessimistic view of human nature and the reliability of human perception
  • For instance, they argue that Hume's assumption that witnesses are more likely to be deceived or deceiving than to be telling the truth is not always justified
  • Critics also note that Hume's dismissal of testimony fails to consider the cumulative weight of multiple independent witnesses

Assumption of scientific naturalism

• Some critics argue that Hume's critique of miracles is based on an assumption of scientific naturalism, which excludes the possibility of supernatural intervention
• They contend that Hume's argument presupposes a closed system of natural causes and effects, leaving no room for divine action
• Critics suggest that Hume's naturalistic assumptions are themselves a matter of philosophical and theological debate and cannot be taken for granted
  • For example, they argue that Hume's insistence on natural explanations for seemingly miraculous events begs the question against the possibility of genuine miracles
  • Critics also note that Hume's naturalistic worldview is not necessarily entailed by empirical science and that it is possible to reconcile scientific knowledge with belief in divine intervention

Possibility of genuine miracles

• Some critics argue that Hume's arguments do not conclusively rule out the possibility of genuine miracles, even if they raise important challenges to their credibility
• They contend that Hume's critique is based on philosophical assumptions and probabilities, rather than on a definitive proof of the impossibility of miracles
• Critics suggest that the possibility of genuine miracles cannot be dismissed a priori and that each miracle claim must be evaluated on its own merits
  • For instance, they argue that some miracle claims, such as the resurrection of Jesus, are supported by a substantial body of historical and testimonial evidence that cannot be easily dismissed
  • Critics also note that the occurrence of genuine miracles, while improbable, is not logically impossible and that their possibility must be left open to further investigation and debate

Implications for religious belief

• Hume's critique of miracles poses significant challenges to traditional religious beliefs in divine intervention and the supernatural
• His arguments call into question the credibility of miracle claims and the rationality of basing religious faith on such events
• The implications of Hume's critique for religious belief have been widely debated, with some seeing it as a decisive blow to faith and others seeking to reconcile science and miracles

Challenges to faith in divine intervention

• Hume's arguments challenge the traditional belief in a God who intervenes in the natural world through miraculous events
• His critique suggests that the evidence for miracles is inherently unreliable and that belief in such events is irrational
• The implications of Hume's challenge to faith in divine intervention have been significant, leading some to abandon traditional religious beliefs and others to seek alternative understandings of God's action in the world
  • For example, some have argued that Hume's critique undermines the credibility of biblical miracles and the divine authority of religious texts
  • Others have suggested that Hume's arguments call into question the efficacy of prayer and the possibility of divine healing or providence

Reconciling science and miracles

• Hume's critique of miracles highlights the tension between scientific naturalism and belief in supernatural intervention
• His arguments suggest that the laws of nature are inviolable and that any event that contradicts them is inherently improbable and unbelievable
• The challenge of reconciling science and miracles has been a major theme in modern theology and philosophy of religion
  • Some have argued that miracles can be understood as divine actions that work within the laws of nature, rather than as violations of them
  • Others have suggested that science and faith operate in different domains and that belief in miracles is a matter of religious conviction rather than empirical evidence

Alternative views of God's action in the world

• Hume's critique of miracles has led some religious thinkers to develop alternative views of God's action in the world that do not rely on supernatural intervention
• These views emphasize God's immanence and ongoing presence in the natural world, rather than his transcendent power to suspend the laws of nature
• Alternative views of God's action in the world have taken various forms, such as process theology, panentheism, and divine action through quantum indeterminacy
  • For example, process theology understands God as the source of novelty and creativity in the world, working through the inherent possibilities of natural processes
  • Panentheism views God as the animating spirit of the universe, present in all things but not identical with them

Historical impact of Hume's critique

• Hume's critique of miracles has had a significant impact on the development of modern philosophy, theology, and science
• His arguments have shaped the way in which miracles are understood and debated, both within and outside of religious contexts
• The historical impact of Hume's critique can be seen in the ongoing debates over the credibility of miracle claims and the relationship between faith and reason

Influence on skepticism and naturalism

• Hume's critique of miracles has been a major influence on the development of philosophical skepticism and naturalism
• His arguments have been seen as a challenge to traditional religious beliefs and a defense of a naturalistic worldview that excludes supernatural intervention
• Hume's influence on skepticism and naturalism can be seen in the work of later philosophers, such as Bertrand Russell and J.L. Mackie, who have built on his arguments to develop more radical forms of religious skepticism
  • For example, Russell's essay "Why I Am Not a Christian" draws on Hume's critique of miracles to argue against the credibility of Christian faith
  • Similarly, Mackie's book "The Miracle of Theism" uses Hume's arguments to challenge the rationality of belief in a supernatural God

Responses from religious thinkers

• Hume's critique of miracles has elicited a range of responses from religious thinkers, both in his own time and in subsequent centuries
• Some have sought to defend the credibility of miracle claims and the rationality of religious belief, while others have accepted Hume's arguments and sought to develop alternative understandings of faith
• The responses from religious thinkers to Hume's critique have taken various forms, including philosophical defenses of miracles, historical investigations of miracle claims, and theological reinterpretations of divine action
  • For example, the philosopher William Paley argued that the design of the natural world is itself a miracle that points to the existence of a divine creator
  • The historian Richard Swinburne has investigated specific miracle claims, such as the resurrection of Jesus, and argued that they are supported by reliable historical evidence

Ongoing debates over miracles and evidence

• Hume's critique of miracles has not settled the question of their credibility or the relationship between faith and reason
• His arguments continue to be debated and discussed by philosophers, theologians, and scientists, with new perspectives and evidence being brought to bear on the issue
• The ongoing debates over miracles and evidence reflect the enduring significance of Hume's critique and the complexity of the issues it raises
  • For example, some contemporary philosophers, such as John Earman, have used Bayesian probability theory to argue that belief in miracles can be rational under certain conditions
  • Others, such as the philosopher of science Michael Ruse, have suggested that the concept of miracles is incompatible with a scientific worldview and that religious belief must be based on faith alone