🏛️Roman Art Unit 10 – Roman Art and Religion

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Polytheism belief in multiple gods and goddesses each with their own domains and responsibilities
• Syncretism blending of different religious traditions and deities from various cultures (Greek, Etruscan, Egyptian)
• Anthropomorphism portrayal of gods and goddesses with human characteristics and emotions
• Cult worship focused on a specific deity or group of deities often associated with a particular location or temple
• Votive offerings objects dedicated to a deity as a form of prayer, thanksgiving, or fulfillment of a vow
  • Common votive offerings included figurines, inscriptions, and altars
• Lararium a shrine dedicated to the household gods (Lares) typically located in the atrium of a Roman home
• Genius a guardian spirit believed to accompany each individual throughout their life
• Numina divine forces or spirits associated with specific places, objects, or activities

Historical Context and Timeline

• Roman religion evolved over centuries incorporating elements from various cultures and civilizations
• Early Roman religion heavily influenced by Etruscan and Greek traditions
  • Etruscan influence seen in practices like haruspicy (divination using animal entrails) and importance of triads of deities
  • Greek influence evident in adoption and adaptation of Greek myths and deities (Jupiter as Zeus, Venus as Aphrodite)
• Archaic Period (8th-6th centuries BCE) characterized by development of key religious institutions and practices
  • Establishment of the College of Pontiffs and Vestal Virgins
  • Construction of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline Hill
• Republican Period (509-27 BCE) saw the expansion of Roman territory and incorporation of new deities and cults
  • Introduction of the Sibylline Books and the cult of Apollo
  • Establishment of the Bacchanalian cult which was later suppressed by the Senate in 186 BCE
• Imperial Period (27 BCE-476 CE) marked by the deification of emperors and the spread of mystery cults
  • Cult of the emperor became a key aspect of imperial ideology and loyalty
  • Rise of mystery cults such as Mithraism and the cult of Isis offering personal salvation and afterlife

Major Roman Deities and Myths

• Jupiter (Zeus) king of the gods, god of the sky, thunder, and lightning
  • Myths often depict Jupiter's numerous love affairs and offspring (Hercules, Perseus)
• Juno (Hera) queen of the gods, goddess of marriage, childbirth, and women
  • Myths portray Juno as a jealous and vengeful wife, often punishing Jupiter's lovers and children
• Mars (Ares) god of war, agriculture, and father of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome
• Venus (Aphrodite) goddess of love, beauty, and fertility
  • Myth of Venus' birth from the sea foam and her love affair with Mars
• Mercury (Hermes) messenger of the gods, god of commerce, travel, and thieves
• Neptune (Poseidon) god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses
• Minerva (Athena) goddess of wisdom, war, and crafts
  • Myth of Minerva's birth from Jupiter's head, fully grown and armed
• Apollo god of music, poetry, prophecy, and healing
  • Myths involving Apollo's musical contests and his oracle at Delphi
• Diana (Artemis) goddess of the hunt, moon, and childbirth
• Bacchus (Dionysus) god of wine, fertility, and theater

Religious Practices and Rituals

• Sacrifice offering of animals, food, or precious objects to the gods to ensure divine favor or appease their anger
  • Suovetaurilia sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and bull during important events like agricultural festivals or military campaigns
• Libation pouring of wine or other liquids as an offering to the gods
• Prayer formulaic invocations and requests addressed to specific deities
  • Prayers often accompanied by gestures like raising hands or touching altars
• Processions ceremonial marches featuring priests, musicians, and sacred objects
  • Pompa circensis procession before chariot races in the Circus Maximus
• Festivals annual celebrations honoring specific deities or marking important events in the agricultural calendar
  • Saturnalia winter festival honoring Saturn, characterized by role reversals and gift-giving
  • Lupercalia purification festival held in February, involving the sacrifice of goats and dogs
• Divination various methods of interpreting divine will, including reading entrails (haruspicy), observing bird flight patterns (augury), and consulting oracles
• Mystery cults secretive religious groups that required initiation and promised personal salvation or afterlife benefits
  • Cult of Mithras popular among soldiers, featuring a shared meal and seven grades of initiation
  • Cult of Isis Egyptian goddess whose worship spread throughout the Roman Empire, emphasizing personal devotion and moral purity

Art Forms and Techniques

• Sculpture primary medium for depicting gods, goddesses, and religious scenes
  • Marble and bronze most common materials used in Roman sculpture
  • Techniques included carving, casting, and assembling separate pieces
• Relief sculpture sculptures featuring raised images against a flat background
  • High relief sculptures with deeply carved figures and elements
  • Low relief sculptures with shallowly carved figures and elements
• Freestanding sculpture three-dimensional sculptures meant to be viewed from all sides
  • Cult statues large-scale representations of deities housed in temples
  • Votive figurines small-scale sculptures offered as gifts to the gods
• Painting used to decorate temple walls, altars, and domestic shrines
  • Fresco technique involving painting on damp plaster, allowing pigments to bond with the surface
  • Encaustic technique using heated beeswax mixed with pigments, creating a durable and luminous effect
• Mosaics decorative art form composed of small, colored tiles arranged to create patterns or images
  • Opus tessellatum mosaic technique using small, uniform tiles to create detailed images
  • Opus sectile mosaic technique using larger, cut pieces of marble or other materials to create geometric patterns
• Architectural sculpture decorative elements integrated into buildings, such as temples and altars
  • Pediments triangular space above the entrance of a temple, often filled with sculptural scenes
  • Friezes continuous bands of relief sculpture running along the upper part of a building
  • Acroteria sculptural ornaments placed at the corners and peak of a temple roof

Iconic Roman Religious Artworks

• Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) monumental altar dedicated in 9 BCE, featuring intricate relief sculptures depicting religious processions and mythological scenes
• Pantheon temple dedicated to all the gods, rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian in the early 2nd century CE, featuring a massive concrete dome and ornate interior
• Laocoön and His Sons Hellenistic sculpture depicting a scene from the Trojan War, discovered in Rome in 1506 and praised for its emotional intensity and anatomical detail
• Cult Statue of Jupiter from the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus colossal seated statue of Jupiter, the most important deity in the Roman pantheon
• Frescoes from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii series of enigmatic frescoes believed to depict an initiation ceremony into a mystery cult, showcasing Roman painting techniques and symbolism
• Mithraeum of the Seven Spheres in Ostia Antica well-preserved underground temple dedicated to the god Mithras, featuring elaborate mosaics and sculptural reliefs

Symbolism and Iconography

• Gods and goddesses often depicted with specific attributes or symbols to aid in their identification
  • Jupiter typically shown with a thunderbolt, eagle, or oak wreath
  • Venus often portrayed with a mirror, apple, or dove
  • Mercury usually depicted with a caduceus (winged staff), winged sandals, or a purse
• Animals played a significant role in Roman religious symbolism
  • Bulls and rams associated with sacrificial rituals and fertility
  • Snakes linked to healing, regeneration, and the afterlife
  • Lions symbolized power, courage, and the sun
• Plants and flowers held symbolic meanings in Roman art and religion
  • Laurel wreaths represented victory, honor, and purification
  • Oak leaves associated with Jupiter and civic virtue
  • Pomegranates symbolized fertility, abundance, and the cycle of life and death
• Gestures and poses conveyed specific meanings in Roman religious art
  • Raised right hand with palm facing outward signified speech or blessing
  • Figures shown seated on a throne or holding a scepter indicated power and authority
  • Veiled figures represented piety, modesty, or mourning

Legacy and Influence

• Roman religious art and architecture heavily influenced later Western art and culture
  • Renaissance artists drew inspiration from ancient Roman sculptures and motifs (Michelangelo's David, Botticelli's Birth of Venus)
  • Neoclassical architecture in the 18th and 19th centuries emulated Roman temples and public buildings (US Capitol, British Museum)
• Roman mythology and iconography continue to permeate popular culture
  • Films, books, and video games often feature Roman gods, goddesses, and mythological creatures (Percy Jackson series, God of War video game franchise)
  • Brand names and logos frequently reference Roman deities or symbols (Nike, Mercury automobiles)
• Scholarly interest in Roman religion and art has deepened our understanding of ancient society and belief systems
  • Archaeological discoveries continue to shed light on the diversity and complexity of Roman religious practices (Temple of Mithras in London, Pompeii's Villa of the Mysteries)
  • Interdisciplinary approaches combining art history, archaeology, and religious studies provide new insights into the role of art in Roman religious life