Glossary

12.6 New religious movements and spirituality

7 min read•august 20, 2024

emerged in the mid-20th century, blending elements from various spiritual traditions. These groups often appeal to those seeking alternative forms of spirituality outside established institutions, offering unique belief systems and practices.

arise during times of social change, led by charismatic figures claiming special knowledge. They range from syncretic spiritualities to neo-pagan traditions, UFO-based beliefs, and apocalyptic groups, each offering distinct approaches to spiritual growth and community.

Origins of new religious movements

Defining new religious movements

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  • New religious movements (NRMs) are spiritual or religious groups that have emerged since the mid-20th century and deviate from mainstream religious traditions
  • NRMs often blend elements from various religious, philosophical, and cultural sources to create unique belief systems and practices
  • These movements typically attract individuals seeking alternative forms of spirituality and community outside of established religious institutions

Social and cultural context

  • NRMs often emerge during times of rapid social change, cultural upheaval, and shifting values
  • Factors such as , , and the counterculture movement of the 1960s and 1970s have contributed to the rise of NRMs
  • Many NRMs appeal to individuals disillusioned with traditional religious structures and seeking a more personalized and experiential approach to spirituality

Charismatic leaders and founders

  • NRMs are frequently founded by charismatic leaders who claim divine revelation, special knowledge, or spiritual enlightenment
  • These leaders often possess strong personalities and the ability to attract and inspire followers with their teachings and vision
  • Examples of influential NRM leaders include (), (), and ()

Types of new religious movements

Syncretic and eclectic spirituality

  • Many NRMs combine elements from multiple religious traditions, philosophies, and cultural practices to create a unique spiritual framework
  • These syncretic movements often draw from Eastern religions (Buddhism, Hinduism), Western esotericism, and indigenous spiritual practices
  • Examples of syncretic NRMs include the , , and the

Neo-pagan and earth-based traditions

  • Neo-pagan movements revive and reinterpret pre-Christian spiritual traditions, emphasizing a connection to nature and the divine feminine
  • These groups often celebrate seasonal cycles, perform rituals honoring ancient deities, and practice forms of magic and divination
  • Examples of neo-pagan traditions include , , and (Norse paganism)

UFO and extraterrestrial-based beliefs

  • Some NRMs center around beliefs in extraterrestrial intelligence, UFO encounters, and the role of aliens in human spiritual evolution
  • These groups may incorporate elements of science fiction, conspiracy theories, and channeled messages from alleged extraterrestrial entities
  • Examples include the , , and the

Apocalyptic and millenarian groups

  • Apocalyptic NRMs focus on prophecies of imminent global transformation, often involving a cataclysmic event followed by a golden age or spiritual awakening
  • Millenarian movements believe in the coming of a messianic figure or the establishment of a utopian society on Earth
  • Examples include the , the , and the ()

Beliefs and practices

Spiritual experiences and altered states

  • NRMs often emphasize the importance of personal spiritual experiences and the cultivation of altered states of consciousness
  • Techniques such as meditation, chanting, drumming, and the use of entheogens may be employed to induce mystical experiences and spiritual insights
  • Many NRMs view these experiences as a means of accessing higher truths, spiritual realms, or divine knowledge

Sacred texts and revelations

  • NRMs may produce their own sacred texts, often attributed to the revelations or channeled messages of their founders or spiritual leaders
  • These texts serve as the basis for the group's beliefs, practices, and spiritual guidance
  • Examples include the Church of Scientology's , the , and the of the Unification Church

Rituals and ceremonies

  • NRMs develop unique rituals and ceremonies that reflect their beliefs and spiritual practices
  • These may include initiation rites, healing ceremonies, group meditations, and celebrations of celestial events or significant dates
  • Rituals often serve to foster a sense of community, mark important transitions, and facilitate spiritual growth and transformation

Communal living and alternative lifestyles

  • Some NRMs encourage arrangements, where members live and work together in intentional communities or ashrams
  • These communities may adopt alternative lifestyles, such as vegetarianism, environmentalism, or non-traditional sexual and relationship practices
  • Examples include the , , and the

Controversies and criticisms

Allegations of brainwashing and coercion

  • NRMs have faced accusations of using brainwashing, mind control, or coercive persuasion techniques to recruit and retain members
  • Critics argue that some groups exploit vulnerabilities, suppress critical thinking, and create unhealthy dependencies on the leader or the community
  • However, scholars have debated the validity and applicability of brainwashing theories to NRMs

Conflicts with mainstream society

  • NRMs often face opposition, discrimination, and stigmatization from mainstream religious institutions and the general public
  • Concerns may arise over the groups' unconventional beliefs, practices, and lifestyle choices, which can be perceived as threatening or deviant
  • Some NRMs have been accused of undermining family structures, promoting anti-social behavior, or engaging in financial exploitation
  • Governments have grappled with how to regulate and respond to NRMs, particularly when concerns arise over the groups' activities or the welfare of their members
  • Some countries have implemented laws or policies targeting NRMs, such as the "anti-cult" movement in France or the ban on Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia
  • Legal battles have been fought over issues such as religious freedom, child custody, and the tax-exempt status of NRMs

Violence and mass suicides

  • A small number of NRMs have been associated with incidents of violence, abuse, or mass suicides, which have garnered significant media attention and public concern
  • Examples include the Jonestown massacre (Peoples Temple), the Tokyo subway sarin attack (Aum Shinrikyo), and the Heaven's Gate mass suicide
  • These tragic events have contributed to negative stereotypes and fears surrounding NRMs, although such incidents are rare and not representative of the majority of these movements

Impact and influence

Cultural and artistic expressions

  • NRMs have inspired various forms of cultural and artistic expression, including music, art, literature, and film
  • Some groups have developed their own distinctive styles of music or art as a means of spiritual expression or cultural identity
  • NRMs have also been the subject of popular media, such as documentaries, books, and movies, which have shaped public perceptions and understanding of these movements

Contributions to alternative medicine

  • Many NRMs have explored and promoted alternative approaches to health and healing, often drawing from traditional or holistic medical systems
  • These may include practices such as acupuncture, herbal remedies, energy healing, or spiritual healing techniques
  • Some NRMs, such as the Church of Scientology, have developed their own forms of alternative medicine or therapeutic practices

Role in personal growth and self-help

  • NRMs often attract individuals seeking personal growth, self-improvement, and a sense of purpose or meaning in life
  • These movements may offer teachings, practices, or therapies aimed at helping members overcome psychological issues, addictions, or life challenges
  • Some NRMs, such as the Landmark Forum or the Esalen Institute, have been influential in the development of the modern self-help and personal development industry

Influence on mainstream religious traditions

  • NRMs have sometimes influenced and inspired changes within mainstream religious traditions, particularly in their approaches to spirituality, ritual, and community
  • For example, the New Age movement has contributed to the rise of "spiritual but not religious" attitudes and the incorporation of alternative practices into some mainstream churches
  • Some NRMs, such as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), have played a role in the globalization and popularization of Eastern spiritual traditions in the West

Future of new religious movements

Adaptations to changing social norms

  • As societies continue to evolve and change, NRMs will likely need to adapt their teachings, practices, and organizational structures to remain relevant and appealing to new generations
  • This may involve embracing new technologies, addressing contemporary social and ethical issues, or finding ways to integrate with mainstream culture while maintaining a distinct identity
  • Some NRMs have already demonstrated a capacity for adaptation, such as the incorporation of environmental activism or social justice concerns into their spiritual frameworks

Transmission to younger generations

  • The long-term sustainability of NRMs depends on their ability to attract and retain younger members, particularly as their founding generations age or pass away
  • Some groups may face challenges in transmitting their beliefs and practices to younger generations, who may have different values, expectations, or cultural backgrounds
  • NRMs that emphasize strong family bonds, youth outreach, or the development of educational programs may be better positioned to ensure generational continuity

Potential for long-term sustainability

  • The long-term sustainability of NRMs is influenced by various factors, including their organizational stability, financial resources, and ability to maintain member commitment
  • Groups that have established stable leadership structures, secure funding sources, and effective mechanisms for conflict resolution may be more likely to endure over time
  • NRMs that foster a strong sense of community, provide meaningful roles for members, and offer compelling spiritual or social benefits may be more successful in retaining members and attracting new ones

Emergence of new forms of spirituality

  • As NRMs continue to evolve and new ones emerge, they may give rise to novel forms of spirituality that blend elements from diverse traditions, philosophies, and cultural influences
  • The increasing globalization and interconnectedness of the world may facilitate the exchange of ideas and practices, leading to the development of more syncretic and eclectic spiritual movements
  • The rise of digital technologies and online communities may also shape the future of NRMs, enabling the formation of virtual spiritual networks and the dissemination of teachings and practices across geographic boundaries

Key Terms to Review (41)

Apocalyptic movements: Apocalyptic movements are religious or social movements that emphasize an impending transformative event, often characterized by a belief in an imminent end of the world or significant societal upheaval. These movements typically focus on prophecies, visions, or signs indicating that a new order will emerge following a cataclysmic change, leading to either salvation for the faithful or judgment for the unworthy.
Asatru: Asatru is a modern pagan religion that seeks to revive the ancient Norse beliefs and practices associated with the pre-Christian Scandinavian culture. It emphasizes the worship of Norse deities such as Odin, Thor, and Freyja, along with a strong connection to nature and the ancestors. Asatru is a part of the broader category of new religious movements, showcasing how contemporary spirituality can draw from historical traditions.
Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh: Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, also known as Osho, was an Indian spiritual teacher and the founder of the Rajneesh movement, which emerged in the late 20th century. He gained international fame for his teachings that blended Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy, promoting a vision of individual liberation and a new form of spirituality that attracted many followers worldwide.
Branch Davidians: The Branch Davidians are a religious group that emerged from the Davidian movement, which itself split from the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 1950s. Known for their apocalyptic beliefs and charismatic leadership, particularly under David Koresh, they gained international attention during a standoff with federal agents in Waco, Texas in 1993. Their beliefs center around interpretations of the Bible, particularly the Book of Revelation, and they often see themselves as the chosen people in a final confrontation between good and evil.
Channeling: Channeling refers to a spiritual practice in which an individual, known as a channeler, claims to communicate with non-physical entities or higher consciousness to receive messages, guidance, or healing. This practice is often found within new religious movements and spiritual communities, where individuals seek to connect with spiritual beings or guides to gain insight into their lives and the universe.
Charismatic leadership: Charismatic leadership refers to a style of leadership where an individual uses their charm, persuasive communication, and emotional appeal to inspire and motivate followers. This type of leader often possesses a strong personal magnetism that draws people in, making them feel connected to the leader's vision or mission. In the context of new religious movements and spirituality, charismatic leaders can emerge as figures who provide a sense of purpose and community for their followers, often shaping the identity and beliefs of the movement.
Communal living: Communal living refers to a lifestyle where individuals or families share common resources, responsibilities, and spaces, fostering a sense of community and collaboration. This approach often emphasizes collective decision-making, mutual support, and shared values, which can lead to a deeper social connection among participants. In different contexts, such as religious groups or new spiritual movements, communal living may serve as a way to express faith, build relationships, and create alternative social structures.
Conversion experiences: Conversion experiences are profound, transformative moments in which individuals undergo significant spiritual or religious change, often leading to a commitment to a new faith or belief system. These experiences can be marked by intense emotional states, feelings of enlightenment, and a perceived encounter with the divine, reshaping the individual's worldview and identity.
Counterculture of the 1960s: The counterculture of the 1960s was a social movement characterized by the rejection of traditional norms and values, particularly in relation to authority, consumerism, and conventional lifestyles. This movement was marked by a push for alternative lifestyles, including communal living, sexual liberation, and a quest for spiritual enlightenment, leading to the rise of various new religious movements and expressions of spirituality.
Dianetics: Dianetics is a set of ideas and practices developed by L. Ron Hubbard, aimed at addressing the mind and mental health through a process called 'auditing.' It combines elements of psychology and self-help, suggesting that the mind has two parts: the analytical mind, which is rational, and the reactive mind, which records traumatic experiences. The goal of dianetics is to clear individuals of these negative influences to achieve better mental clarity and emotional well-being.
Divine Principle: The Divine Principle is a central theological text of the Unification Church, also known as the Moonies, founded by Sun Myung Moon. This work outlines the church's beliefs about the nature of God, humanity, and the purpose of life, emphasizing a unique interpretation of biblical scripture and the importance of establishing a God-centered family as a means to fulfill God's plan for humanity. It serves as both a spiritual guide and an ideological framework for followers, shaping their understanding of faith and the role of divine love in human relationships.
Druidry: Druidry is a modern spiritual movement inspired by the ancient practices and beliefs of the Druids, who were priestly figures in Celtic societies. It emphasizes a deep connection to nature, reverence for the Earth, and the celebration of seasonal festivals, drawing on both historical traditions and contemporary interpretations.
Findhorn Foundation: The Findhorn Foundation is a spiritual community and eco-village located in Scotland, founded in the 1960s. It focuses on ecological living, sustainable practices, and personal and spiritual development through a unique blend of New Age spirituality and communal living.
Globalization: Globalization is the process through which cultures, economies, and societies become interconnected on a global scale, facilitated by advancements in technology, communication, and transportation. This phenomenon has significant implications for the way religions are practiced and understood worldwide, often leading to the blending of spiritual beliefs and the emergence of new religious movements as people seek to adapt their faiths to a rapidly changing world.
Heaven's Gate: Heaven's Gate was a religious movement founded in the 1970s by Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles, which believed in the imminent transformation of human beings into extraterrestrial beings. The group gained notoriety for its apocalyptic beliefs and the tragic mass suicide in 1997, where members sought to reach a higher existence by leaving their physical bodies behind. This movement is often cited as a significant example of new religious movements that blend elements of spirituality, science fiction, and contemporary spiritual practices.
Jehovah's Witnesses: Jehovah's Witnesses is a Christian denomination known for its distinct beliefs, including the use of God's name, Jehovah, and a strong emphasis on door-to-door evangelism. They believe in the Bible as the inspired word of God and hold unique interpretations of scripture, particularly concerning the end times and the nature of Christ's kingdom. This group is a notable example of a new religious movement that has emerged in the context of modern spirituality.
Jim Jones: Jim Jones was an American cult leader and founder of the Peoples Temple, which became infamous for the mass suicide of its members in Jonestown, Guyana, in 1978. He is often discussed in the context of new religious movements as a prime example of how charismatic leadership can manipulate followers into extreme actions under the guise of spiritual beliefs.
L. Ron Hubbard: L. Ron Hubbard was an American author and the founder of Scientology, a religion that emerged in the early 1950s. He developed a comprehensive body of work, including writings and lectures, that outline the beliefs and practices of Scientology, focusing on concepts like thetans, auditing, and personal spiritual development. His contributions have significantly influenced new religious movements and contemporary spirituality.
Millenarian groups: Millenarian groups are religious movements that believe in a coming transformative event, often characterized by a significant change in the world or the establishment of a utopian society. These groups typically expect an imminent apocalypse or the return of a messianic figure, leading to a new era of peace and righteousness. This belief can drive followers to adopt radical practices and sometimes engage in collective actions aimed at hastening this anticipated event.
Missionary activities: Missionary activities refer to efforts by individuals or groups to spread their religious beliefs and practices to others, often involving the establishment of new communities of faith. These activities are integral to many religious traditions, especially within Christianity, where missionaries aim to convert individuals and promote their interpretation of spiritual teachings. Missionary work can include preaching, education, healthcare, and social services, often addressing both spiritual and physical needs of the communities they serve.
Moonies: Moonies is a colloquial term for members of the Unification Church, a religious movement founded by Sun Myung Moon in the 1950s. The group is known for its unconventional beliefs and practices, including the idea of world peace through family unity and the concept of True Parents, where Moon and his wife are seen as the spiritual parents of humanity. This movement has often been associated with the larger phenomenon of new religious movements that challenge traditional religious structures and explore unique spiritualities.
New age movement: The new age movement is a spiritual and cultural phenomenon that emerged in the late 20th century, characterized by a blend of various beliefs, practices, and philosophies aimed at personal transformation and holistic well-being. It often embraces elements from Eastern religions, metaphysical concepts, and alternative healing practices, reflecting a broader quest for spiritual fulfillment amidst religious pluralism and diversity.
New religious movements: New religious movements (NRMs) are faith-based groups or communities that have emerged relatively recently, often as a response to social, cultural, or spiritual changes. These movements frequently develop new beliefs, rituals, and organizational structures that differentiate them from established religions. NRMs can reflect a variety of spiritual perspectives and may emphasize personal experiences, alternative spiritual practices, and innovative interpretations of sacred texts.
NRMs: NRMs, or New Religious Movements, refer to religious groups that have emerged relatively recently in comparison to established world religions. These movements often arise in response to social, cultural, or spiritual needs that are not addressed by traditional religions, and they frequently incorporate diverse beliefs and practices that reflect contemporary society's values and challenges.
Osho International Meditation Resort: The Osho International Meditation Resort is a spiritual retreat located in Pune, India, founded by the Indian spiritual teacher Osho, also known as Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh. This resort provides a variety of meditation techniques, personal growth workshops, and therapeutic practices, attracting people from around the world seeking to explore their spirituality and self-awareness. It embodies the principles of new religious movements that emphasize personal transformation and experiential spirituality.
Peoples Temple: The Peoples Temple was a new religious movement founded in the 1950s by Jim Jones, initially promoting social justice and racial equality. Over time, it became infamous for the tragic mass suicide of its members in Jonestown, Guyana, in 1978, marking a significant event in the history of new religious movements and spirituality. The Temple's evolution from a community-focused organization to a cult-like environment reflects complex dynamics in faith, leadership, and manipulation within new religious movements.
Raëlian Movement: The Raëlian Movement is a new religious movement founded in the 1970s by Claude Vorilhon, who claimed to have encountered extraterrestrial beings known as the Elohim. This movement emphasizes the belief that humanity was created by these extraterrestrial beings and promotes a philosophy centered around world peace, personal development, and the pursuit of scientific knowledge.
Rajneeshpuram: Rajneeshpuram was a commune and religious community established in the 1980s in Wasco County, Oregon, by followers of the Indian spiritual teacher Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, also known as Osho. It became a notable example of a new religious movement, showcasing both the allure and controversies surrounding such communities, particularly in their pursuit of spiritual enlightenment and societal transformation.
Rastafari movement: The rastafari movement is a spiritual and cultural movement that emerged in Jamaica during the 1930s, emphasizing the connection between African heritage and the biblical narrative, particularly through the figure of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. This movement seeks to promote social justice, spiritual liberation, and a return to Africa, often viewed as a promised land for people of African descent. Rastafari incorporates elements of Afrocentric philosophy, reggae music, and a distinctive lifestyle that includes the use of marijuana for spiritual purposes.
Resource mobilization theory: Resource mobilization theory is a sociological perspective that explains how social movements and new religious movements utilize available resources to achieve their goals. It emphasizes the importance of organization, strategy, and the effective use of resources such as money, time, and human capital in building and sustaining movements. This theory helps to understand how groups are able to mobilize followers and maintain momentum, especially in the context of new religious movements and spirituality.
Scientology: Scientology is a set of religious beliefs and practices created by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard in the early 1950s, which emphasizes self-knowledge and spiritual enlightenment through a process known as 'auditing.' This movement has gained attention for its controversial practices, organizational structure, and the significant focus it places on personal transformation and mental health.
Secularization: Secularization refers to the process by which religion loses its influence over various aspects of society, including politics, education, and cultural practices. This shift often leads to the diminishing role of religious institutions in public life and promotes a worldview where scientific and rational explanations take precedence over religious beliefs. The rise of secularization has influenced new religious movements and the pursuit of spirituality outside traditional religious frameworks.
Social Movement Theory: Social movement theory refers to the framework that analyzes the origins, dynamics, and impacts of social movements, particularly how they mobilize resources and collective action to achieve specific goals. This theory explores the relationship between individuals, groups, and societal structures, emphasizing how shared beliefs and collective identities can lead to the formation of new religious movements and spiritual practices in a changing cultural landscape.
Spiritual bypassing: Spiritual bypassing refers to the use of spiritual beliefs and practices to avoid facing emotional issues or psychological wounds. It often manifests in new religious movements and spiritual practices, where individuals may prioritize transcendence over dealing with real-life problems, leading to a superficial understanding of spirituality. This concept highlights the potential pitfalls of using spirituality as a means to escape rather than confront personal challenges.
Syncretism: Syncretism is the blending of different religious beliefs, practices, or traditions to create a new system that incorporates elements from each. This often occurs in societies where multiple cultures coexist and interact, leading to the emergence of unique religious expressions that reflect diverse influences and adaptations.
The Farm (Tennessee): The Farm is a communal living space and intentional community located in Tennessee, founded in 1971 by Stephen Gaskin and his followers. It embodies principles of communal living, sustainability, and alternative spirituality, reflecting a blend of countercultural ideals that emerged during the 1960s and 1970s, particularly within new religious movements.
Theosophy: Theosophy is a spiritual movement that seeks to understand the divine nature and the mysteries of life through a synthesis of religion, philosophy, and science. It emphasizes the unity of all life, the interconnectedness of all beings, and the pursuit of spiritual wisdom through personal experience and study. Theosophy often draws from various religious traditions, promoting universal truths that transcend individual faiths.
Unarius Academy of Science: The Unarius Academy of Science is a new religious movement founded in the 1970s by Ernest and Ruth Norman, which blends elements of spiritualism, science fiction, and metaphysics. This movement emphasizes the importance of spiritual evolution, reincarnation, and communication with extraterrestrial beings as part of its teachings.
Unification Church: The Unification Church, also known as the Moonies, is a new religious movement founded in South Korea in the 1950s by Sun Myung Moon. This movement is characterized by its unique theology that combines elements of Christianity with Eastern religious beliefs, emphasizing the importance of family and world peace through marriage. The Unification Church's teachings promote the idea of achieving spiritual unity and harmony, both individually and collectively, which aligns with broader themes in new religious movements and contemporary spirituality.
Urantia Book: The Urantia Book is a spiritual and philosophical text published in the 1950s, presenting a unique blend of cosmology, theology, and philosophy. It claims to provide revelations about the nature of God, the universe, and the role of human beings in relation to the divine, aiming to enhance spiritual understanding and promote unity among diverse religious traditions.
Wicca: Wicca is a modern pagan religious movement that emphasizes the worship of nature, a reverence for the Earth, and the practice of magic. It is characterized by its dualistic belief in a God and Goddess, often referred to as the Horned God and the Triple Goddess, and incorporates various rituals, seasonal festivals, and ethical principles, promoting personal responsibility and respect for all living things.
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