10.6 Neo-Confucianism
8 min read•august 21, 2024
Neo-Confucianism emerged during the as a philosophical revival of Confucian teachings. It integrated elements from Buddhism and Daoism while maintaining core Confucian values, shaping East Asian thought for centuries.
Key figures like Zhou Dunyi and developed core concepts such as the and the relationship between principle and material force. Neo-Confucianism emphasized moral cultivation, self-reflection, and the unity of humans with nature.
Origins of Neo-Confucianism
- Neo-Confucianism emerged as a philosophical movement in response to the challenges posed by Buddhism and Daoism during the Tang and Song dynasties
- This revival of Confucian thought integrated elements from other traditions while maintaining core Confucian values, shaping the intellectual landscape of East Asia for centuries
Historical context
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- Developed during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) as a response to the perceived threat of Buddhism to traditional Chinese culture
- Aimed to revitalize Confucian teachings by incorporating metaphysical and cosmological elements
- Emerged in a period of significant social and economic changes, including urbanization and the rise of a new scholar-official class
Key founders
- Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073) introduced the concept of the Supreme Ultimate (taiji) and its role in the creation of the universe
- Cheng Hao (1032-1085) and Cheng Yi (1033-1107) developed the theory of principle () and material force ()
- Zhu Xi (1130-1200) systematized Neo-Confucian thought and established the
- Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193) founded the rival , emphasizing the importance of the mind
Influences from Buddhism
- Adopted meditative practices similar to Chan Buddhism for
- Incorporated the concept of sudden enlightenment from Buddhism into Neo-Confucian thought
- Developed a more systematic metaphysics in response to Buddhist philosophical challenges
- Borrowed the idea of universal Buddha-nature and transformed it into the concept of innate moral knowledge
Core philosophical concepts
- Neo-Confucianism sought to provide a comprehensive worldview that explained the nature of reality, human existence, and moral cultivation
- This philosophical framework aimed to address metaphysical questions while maintaining the practical focus on ethics and social harmony characteristic of classical Confucianism
Principle vs material force
- Li (principle) represents the underlying pattern or order of the universe
- Qi (material force) constitutes the physical substance of all things
- The interaction between li and qi explains the diversity and unity of the cosmos
- Human beings possess both li and qi, with moral cultivation aimed at aligning one's qi with the universal li
Human nature and morality
- Asserted the innate goodness of human nature, following Mencius' interpretation of Confucius
- Emphasized the concept of (benevolence or humaneness) as the highest virtue
- Developed the idea of the "investigation of things" (gewu) to understand moral principles
- Stressed the importance of self-reflection and moral introspection in cultivating virtue
Self-cultivation practices
- Advocated for quiet sitting () as a method of moral cultivation and self-reflection
- Emphasized the importance of studying classical texts to gain moral insight
- Promoted the practice of "extending knowledge" () to apply moral principles in daily life
- Encouraged the cultivation of reverence () as a way to maintain moral awareness
Neo-Confucian cosmology
- Neo-Confucian thinkers developed a sophisticated cosmological system that sought to explain the origin and structure of the universe
- This cosmology provided a framework for understanding the relationship between humans and nature, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all things
Theory of the universe
- Posited the Supreme Ultimate (taiji) as the source of all existence
- Explained the creation of the universe through the interaction of yin and yang forces
- Developed the concept of the "Great Chain of Being" linking all levels of existence
- Integrated the () into their cosmological framework
Relationship between humans and nature
- Viewed humans as an integral part of nature, not separate from it
- Emphasized the concept of (unity of Heaven and humanity)
- Promoted the idea of humans as active participants in the cosmic order
- Stressed the responsibility of humans to maintain harmony with nature through moral cultivation
Social and political thought
- Neo-Confucian thinkers applied their philosophical principles to social and political issues, seeking to create an ideal society based on moral governance
- Their ideas significantly influenced East Asian political systems and social structures for centuries
Ideal government structure
- Advocated for a meritocratic system of government based on moral and intellectual cultivation
- Emphasized the importance of virtuous rulers who lead by moral example
- Promoted the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven" as a basis for legitimate rule
- Stressed the need for officials to balance moral principles with practical governance
Role of education
- Viewed education as crucial for both individual moral cultivation and social harmony
- Emphasized the study of classical texts as a means of understanding moral principles
- Promoted the system as a way to select capable officials
- Advocated for universal education to cultivate moral awareness in all members of society
Family and social hierarchy
- Reinforced the importance of filial piety () as the foundation of social order
- Emphasized the Five Relationships (wulun) as the basis for social harmony
- Promoted gender roles based on the concept of separate spheres for men and women
- Stressed the importance of ritual propriety (li) in maintaining social relationships
Schools of Neo-Confucianism
- Neo-Confucianism developed into several distinct schools of thought, each emphasizing different aspects of the philosophy
- These schools engaged in vigorous debates, contributing to the richness and diversity of Neo-Confucian thought
Cheng-Zhu school
- Founded by Cheng Yi and systematized by Zhu Xi
- Emphasized the importance of principle (li) in understanding reality
- Promoted the "investigation of things" as a method of moral cultivation
- Became the orthodox form of Neo-Confucianism in China and Korea
Lu-Wang school
- Established by Lu Jiuyuan and further developed by
- Focused on the primacy of the mind (xin) in moral cultivation
- Advocated for the unity of knowledge and action (zhixing heyi)
- Gained popularity in Japan and influenced later Chinese thinkers
Comparison of major schools
- Cheng-Zhu school emphasized external study, while Lu-Wang school focused on internal reflection
- Debated the relationship between principle (li) and material force (qi)
- Differed in their approaches to moral cultivation and the nature of innate knowledge
- Influenced different regions and periods of East Asian history
Neo-Confucian texts
- Neo-Confucian thinkers produced a vast body of literature, including commentaries on classical texts and original philosophical works
- These texts became the foundation for Neo-Confucian education and intellectual discourse
Four Books and Five Classics
- Zhu Xi elevated (Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Analects, and Mencius) as core texts
- Reinterpreted the Five Classics (Book of Changes, Book of Documents, Book of Poetry, Book of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals) through a Neo-Confucian lens
- Emphasized the moral and metaphysical teachings contained in these texts
- Used these works as the basis for the civil service examination system
Commentaries and interpretations
- Produced extensive commentaries on classical Confucian texts, reinterpreting them in light of Neo-Confucian philosophy
- Developed new interpretative frameworks for understanding ancient wisdom
- Created original philosophical treatises explaining Neo-Confucian concepts and theories
- Engaged in textual debates that shaped the evolution of Neo-Confucian thought
Spread and influence
- Neo-Confucianism exerted a profound influence on East Asian thought, culture, and society for centuries
- Its spread beyond China led to unique developments and interpretations in different cultural contexts
Neo-Confucianism in China
- Became the dominant intellectual tradition during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties
- Influenced government policies, education systems, and social norms
- Shaped the civil service examination system, determining the selection of officials
- Contributed to the development of Chinese science, art, and literature
Impact on Korea and Japan
- Introduced to Korea during the Goryeo dynasty and became state orthodoxy in the Joseon period
- Influenced Japanese thought through the works of Zen monks and later Tokugawa-era scholars
- Adapted to local cultural contexts, leading to unique developments (Korean silhak, Japanese kogaku)
- Shaped social and political structures in both countries
Modern interpretations
- Experienced a decline with the fall of imperial China but saw renewed interest in the 20th century
- Influenced modern Chinese thinkers like Xiong Shili and Mou Zongsan in developing New Confucianism
- Contributed to debates on Asian values and modernization in East Asian countries
- Continues to be studied and reinterpreted in contemporary academic and philosophical circles
Criticisms and challenges
- Neo-Confucianism faced various criticisms and challenges throughout its history, both from within and outside the tradition
- These debates and critiques contributed to the evolution and refinement of Neo-Confucian thought
Internal debates
- Disagreements between Cheng-Zhu and Lu-Wang schools on the nature of principle and mind
- Debates over the proper interpretation of classical texts and their relevance to contemporary issues
- Discussions on the balance between moral cultivation and practical governance
- Critiques of perceived rigidity in Neo-Confucian orthodoxy by later thinkers
External opposition
- Buddhist and Daoist critiques of Neo-Confucian metaphysics and self-cultivation practices
- Challenges from Western philosophy and science during the late Ming and Qing dynasties
- Criticisms of Neo-Confucian and gender roles by reformers and revolutionaries
- Rejection of Neo-Confucianism as "feudal" thought during periods of modernization
Decline of Neo-Confucianism
- Gradual ossification of Neo-Confucian thought in late imperial China
- Impact of Western imperialism and the perceived failure of traditional Chinese institutions
- Rise of new intellectual movements (May Fourth Movement) that rejected traditional thought
- Suppression of Confucian ideas during the Cultural Revolution in China
Legacy and contemporary relevance
- Despite periods of decline, Neo-Confucianism continues to exert influence on East Asian thought and culture
- Recent decades have seen renewed interest in Neo-Confucian ideas in both academic and popular contexts
Influence on East Asian thought
- Shaped intellectual traditions and educational systems in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
- Contributed to the development of distinctive East Asian approaches to ethics and governance
- Influenced modern nationalist and cultural movements in East Asian countries
- Continues to inform debates on cultural identity and values in the region
Neo-Confucianism vs Western philosophy
- Comparisons with Western philosophical traditions (Kantian ethics, virtue ethics)
- Debates on the compatibility of Neo-Confucian thought with democracy and human rights
- Exploration of Neo-Confucian concepts in dialogue with contemporary Western philosophy
- Contributions to cross-cultural philosophical exchanges and comparative studies
Revival in modern times
- Development of New Confucianism as a modern interpretation of Neo-Confucian ideas
- Renewed interest in Neo-Confucian thought as a resource for addressing contemporary issues
- Integration of Neo-Confucian concepts into discussions of business ethics and leadership
- Exploration of Neo-Confucian ideas in relation to environmental ethics and sustainable development
Key Terms to Review (27)
Buddhism's influence on Neo-Confucianism: Buddhism's influence on Neo-Confucianism refers to the ways in which Buddhist thought and practices shaped the development of Neo-Confucian philosophy during the Song Dynasty and beyond. This interaction resulted in a synthesis of ideas, particularly regarding metaphysics, ethics, and the understanding of the self, as well as the incorporation of meditation practices and concepts of enlightenment into Confucian teachings.
Cheng-zhu school: The cheng-zhu school, also known as the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism, is a significant philosophical movement that emerged in the Song dynasty. It emphasizes the importance of the human mind and its ability to understand the principles of the universe, advocating for the idea that moral cultivation can lead to enlightenment and a harmonious society.
Civil service examination: The civil service examination was a standardized test used in imperial China to select candidates for government positions based on merit rather than birth or wealth. This system became deeply intertwined with Confucian ideals, emphasizing education and moral integrity, and laid the foundation for Confucian academies and the rise of Neo-Confucianism as it fostered a scholar-official class dedicated to governance based on Confucian values.
Daoism vs. Neo-Confucianism: Daoism and Neo-Confucianism are two distinct philosophical traditions that originated in China, with Daoism focusing on harmony with the Dao (the Way) and the natural order, while Neo-Confucianism emerged as a response to Daoism, emphasizing moral cultivation, social harmony, and the importance of education. Both traditions shaped Chinese thought but approached concepts of morality, nature, and the cosmos from different perspectives.
Five Elements Theory: Five Elements Theory is a philosophical and cosmological framework that explains the interactions and relationships among the five fundamental elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. This theory underpins various aspects of Chinese thought, including medicine, feng shui, and martial arts, illustrating how these elements influence the natural world and human existence.
Jing: Jing is a vital concept in Chinese philosophy and traditional medicine, often translated as 'essence' or 'vital essence'. It represents the foundational substance that sustains life and is crucial for health, longevity, and spiritual development. In various practices, jing is cultivated and refined to enhance one's physical and spiritual well-being, making it central to Taoist cultivation and immortality practices, as well as influencing Neo-Confucian thought regarding the nature of human vitality and morality.
Jingzuo: Jingzuo refers to the practice of 'quiet sitting' or meditation in the context of Neo-Confucianism. This meditative practice is intended to cultivate inner tranquility, self-reflection, and a deeper understanding of one's nature and the world. It is an essential part of Neo-Confucian thought, emphasizing personal development and moral cultivation through introspection and mindfulness.
Li: Li is a fundamental concept in Confucianism that refers to the proper way of behaving, encompassing rituals, etiquette, and social norms. It emphasizes the importance of order, harmony, and respect within relationships and society, connecting deeply with moral conduct and the cultivation of virtue.
Lu-Wang School: The Lu-Wang School is a prominent branch of Neo-Confucianism that emerged during the Song Dynasty, primarily associated with the philosophers Lu Jiuyuan (Lu Xiuqi) and Wang Yangming. This school emphasizes the importance of innate knowledge and moral intuition over formal study and external texts, arguing that individuals can access truth through their own moral consciousness.
Ming Dynasty: The Ming Dynasty was a major Chinese dynasty that ruled from 1368 to 1644, known for its cultural and political stability, as well as significant advancements in arts and technology. It marked a period of resurgence for Confucianism, alongside the flourishing of Taoism and Buddhism, which influenced Chinese society and governance during this time.
Northern school: The northern school refers to a significant tradition within Chan Buddhism that emerged during the Tang Dynasty, emphasizing sudden enlightenment and direct experience of reality. This school contrasts with the southern school, which focuses more on gradual cultivation and meditation practices. The northern school's influence played a vital role in the development of Neo-Confucian thought, as it provided a spiritual framework that engaged with Confucian principles, particularly regarding morality and ethics.
Qi: Qi is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and medicine, often translated as 'vital energy' or 'life force.' It is believed to be the essential energy that flows through all living things, influencing health, balance, and harmony within the body and the environment. This idea connects to various practices and beliefs, highlighting its importance in achieving physical and spiritual well-being.
Rectification of the Mind: The rectification of the mind is a concept in Neo-Confucianism that refers to the process of aligning one's thoughts and intentions with moral principles and universal truths. This idea emphasizes the importance of inner self-cultivation, fostering clarity of thought, and the pursuit of ethical behavior to achieve harmony within oneself and with the world. It highlights the necessity of self-reflection and discipline in personal development and societal harmony.
Ren: Ren is a fundamental concept in Confucianism, often translated as 'benevolence' or 'humaneness', which emphasizes the importance of compassion, empathy, and moral integrity in human relationships. This idea serves as the cornerstone for ethical conduct, shaping how individuals interact with one another and fostering harmonious societies. Ren connects deeply with other aspects of Confucian thought, highlighting the significance of virtues, rituals, and education in cultivating moral character and social responsibility.
Self-cultivation: Self-cultivation refers to the personal practice of improving oneself through reflection, discipline, and moral development. It emphasizes the importance of nurturing virtues and character traits that contribute to an individual's moral standing in society. This concept is central to various philosophies, particularly in promoting ethical behavior, harmony, and social responsibility.
Social Hierarchy: Social hierarchy refers to the arrangement of individuals or groups within a society based on various factors such as wealth, status, power, and occupation. In Neo-Confucianism, social hierarchy plays a vital role in organizing society according to moral and ethical standards, emphasizing the importance of relationships and duties between different social roles.
Song Dynasty: The Song Dynasty was a significant Chinese dynasty that lasted from 960 to 1279, known for its cultural, economic, and technological advancements. It is particularly notable for the revival of Confucian philosophy, which influenced education and governance, and the flourishing of Taoist practices. This period laid the groundwork for Neo-Confucianism, which emerged as a dominant philosophical framework during this time.
Southern School: The Southern School refers to a significant tradition within Neo-Confucianism that emerged during the Song Dynasty in China. It emphasizes a more intuitive and experiential approach to understanding the principles of Confucianism, contrasting with the rational and systematic methods often associated with the Northern School. This distinction highlights the diversity within Neo-Confucian thought and its development during a pivotal era in Chinese philosophy.
Supreme Ultimate: The Supreme Ultimate, or 'Taiji,' refers to the fundamental principle in Neo-Confucianism that signifies the ultimate reality from which all things arise and to which all things return. It embodies the union of opposites, such as yin and yang, and represents the harmony of the cosmos. This concept is central to understanding the metaphysical framework of Neo-Confucian thought, emphasizing the interconnectedness of all existence and the importance of moral cultivation.
The Four Books: The Four Books are a collection of four important texts in Confucianism that serve as the foundational works for understanding Confucian philosophy and ethics. These texts include the 'Great Learning,' the 'Doctrine of the Mean,' the 'Analects,' and the 'Mencius,' and they emphasize moral cultivation, the importance of education, and the ideal of the Junzi, or 'gentleman.' Together, these books shaped the development of Neo-Confucian thought and influenced East Asian cultures significantly.
The Great Learning: The Great Learning is a foundational text in Confucian philosophy that emphasizes the importance of personal cultivation, moral development, and the pursuit of knowledge as a means to achieve harmony in society. This text outlines a systematic approach to self-improvement and governance, highlighting how individual virtues contribute to the well-being of families and communities.
Tianren heyi: Tianren heyi translates to 'Heaven and humanity as one' and is a central concept in Neo-Confucianism that emphasizes the interconnectedness of the cosmos, human beings, and moral action. This idea suggests that humans are not separate from the natural world but are integral to it, promoting a holistic view of existence where understanding one's role in the universe is essential for moral development and harmony.
Wang Yangming: Wang Yangming was a prominent Chinese philosopher during the Ming dynasty, known for his contributions to Neo-Confucianism and his development of the concept of 'innate knowledge.' He argued that true understanding comes from within and emphasized the importance of moral action over intellectual knowledge. His ideas shifted the focus of Confucian thought from theoretical understanding to practical application in daily life.
Wuxing: Wuxing, often translated as the 'Five Elements' or 'Five Phases,' is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and cosmology that describes the interactions and relationships between five essential elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. These elements are not just physical substances but represent dynamic processes and cycles that influence various aspects of life, including health, emotions, and the natural world. Wuxing plays a crucial role in Neo-Confucianism, where it helps explain the natural order and the harmony of existence.
Xiao: Xiao, often translated as 'filial piety,' is a fundamental virtue in Confucianism emphasizing the importance of respect, loyalty, and care for one's parents and ancestors. This concept serves as a guiding principle in familial relationships, underscoring the duties and obligations individuals have towards their family members. Xiao is not just about obedience; it involves honoring one's parents and ensuring their well-being, which reflects the broader values found in Confucian teachings.
Zhizhi: Zhizhi refers to a concept in Neo-Confucianism that emphasizes the understanding of principle or truth, particularly in relation to moral and ethical behavior. It plays a crucial role in the philosophical framework of Neo-Confucianism, connecting the individual's moral development with the cosmos and natural order. This understanding helps practitioners align their actions with the fundamental truths of existence, reinforcing the importance of self-cultivation and ethical living.
Zhu xi: Zhu Xi was a prominent Chinese philosopher and scholar during the Song Dynasty, who is best known for his role in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He synthesized various philosophical ideas, especially those from Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism, to create a comprehensive moral and metaphysical system that emphasized the importance of self-cultivation and the inherent goodness of human nature. His interpretations of classical Confucian texts established him as a central figure in Chinese intellectual history, significantly influencing education and governance.