8.3 Metaphor and figurative language
9 min read•august 21, 2024
Metaphors and figurative language are powerful tools in human communication. They allow us to express complex ideas through familiar concepts, bridging the gap between abstract thoughts and concrete experiences. Understanding these linguistic devices is crucial for grasping how language shapes our thinking and perception.
In the psychology of language, studying metaphors reveals insights into cognitive processes and cultural influences. From simple comparisons to elaborate conceptual mappings, figurative language permeates our daily communication, literature, and even scientific discourse, shaping how we understand and interact with the world around us.
Nature of figurative language
- Figurative language plays a crucial role in human communication and cognition, allowing for abstract and complex ideas to be expressed through more concrete terms
- In the field of Psychology of Language, understanding figurative language provides insights into cognitive processes, cultural influences, and the interplay between language and thought
Types of figurative language
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- Metaphor compares two unlike things without using "like" or "as" (Her eyes were diamonds)
- makes comparisons using "like" or "as" (He ran like the wind)
- Personification attributes human characteristics to non-human things (The wind whispered through the trees)
- Hyperbole uses exaggeration for emphasis (I've told you a million times)
- Onomatopoeia uses words that imitate sounds (The bees buzzed around the hive)
Literal vs figurative meaning
- Literal meaning refers to the exact, denotative definition of words or phrases
- Figurative meaning involves connotations, implications, and non-literal interpretations
- Context plays a crucial role in determining whether an expression is intended literally or figuratively
- Understanding figurative language requires cognitive flexibility and the ability to infer meaning beyond surface-level interpretations
- Challenges in distinguishing literal from figurative meaning can arise in language disorders or cross-cultural communication
Cultural influences on metaphor
- Metaphors often reflect cultural values, beliefs, and experiences
- Different cultures may use distinct metaphors to express similar concepts (Time is money in Western cultures, time is a circle in some Eastern cultures)
- Some metaphors are culture-specific and may not translate well across languages
- Cultural background influences both the production and interpretation of metaphors
- Studying cultural variations in metaphor use provides insights into cognitive diversity and linguistic relativity
Conceptual metaphor theory
- Theory, developed by and Mark Johnson, posits that metaphors are not just linguistic devices but fundamental cognitive structures
- This theory has significant implications for understanding how language shapes thought and vice versa in the field of Psychology of Language
Source and target domains
- Source domain refers to the concrete concept used to understand the abstract target domain
- Target domain is the abstract concept being explained or understood through the metaphor
- Mapping occurs between elements of the source and target domains (Love is a journey, where journey is the source and love is the target)
- Common source domains include physical experiences, spatial relations, and basic human activities
- Target domains often involve abstract concepts, emotions, or complex social phenomena
Embodied cognition in metaphor
- theory suggests that our physical experiences shape our cognitive processes
- Many metaphors are grounded in bodily experiences and sensorimotor interactions with the environment
- Orientation metaphors often relate to body position (Happy is up, sad is down)
- Temperature metaphors frequently describe emotions or social interactions (A warm personality, a cold reception)
- Studying embodied metaphors provides insights into the connection between physical experiences and abstract thinking
Universality vs cultural specificity
- Some conceptual metaphors appear to be universal across cultures (Life is a journey)
- Universal metaphors often stem from shared human experiences and bodily states
- Cultural variations in metaphors reflect differences in environment, social structures, and belief systems
- (based on direct physical experiences) tend to be more universal than complex metaphors
- Research in this area contributes to debates on linguistic universals and cultural relativism in cognitive psychology
Processing of metaphors
- Understanding how the brain processes metaphors is a key area of study in the Psychology of Language
- Research in this field combines insights from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and linguistics to unravel the complexities of figurative language comprehension
Comprehension models
- proposes that novel metaphors are processed as comparisons, while conventional metaphors are categorizations
- suggests that the most salient (familiar or frequent) meaning is accessed first, regardless of literality
- argues that contextual information allows immediate access to figurative meanings
- posits that metaphor comprehension involves aligning structural relationships between domains
- proposes that multiple sources of information interact simultaneously during metaphor processing
Neural basis of metaphor processing
- reveal increased activation in the right hemisphere for novel metaphors
- Left hemisphere regions, particularly the left inferior frontal gyrus, are involved in processing conventional metaphors
- The anterior temporal lobe plays a role in integrating conceptual information during metaphor comprehension
- Executive control networks are engaged when processing unfamiliar or complex metaphors
- Individual differences in metaphor processing abilities correlate with variations in neural activation patterns
Developmental aspects of metaphor
- Children's ability to understand and produce metaphors develops gradually throughout childhood
- Early metaphor comprehension often relies on perceptual similarities rather than conceptual mappings
- Metalinguistic awareness, which develops around age 6-7, enhances metaphor understanding
- Adolescence marks a period of increased sophistication in metaphor use and interpretation
- Exposure to figurative language in educational settings and literature supports metaphor development
Functions of metaphor
- Metaphors serve multiple purposes in human cognition and communication, making them a crucial area of study in the Psychology of Language
- Understanding these functions provides insights into how language shapes thought and facilitates complex idea expression
Cognitive role of metaphors
- Metaphors facilitate understanding of abstract concepts through concrete experiences
- They provide mental models for reasoning about complex phenomena
- Metaphors can highlight certain aspects of a concept while obscuring others
- They play a role in categorization and conceptual organization
- Metaphorical thinking supports creative problem-solving and innovation
Metaphors in communication
- Enhance expressiveness and vividness in language
- Convey complex ideas efficiently by leveraging shared knowledge
- Evoke emotional responses and create memorable imagery
- Bridge gaps between different levels of expertise or background knowledge
- Facilitate persuasion and influence attitudes in various contexts (advertising, politics)
Metaphors in problem-solving
- Frame problems in new ways, leading to novel solutions
- Provide analogical reasoning tools for approaching unfamiliar situations
- Support hypothesis generation in scientific inquiry
- Aid in explaining complex processes or systems (computer as brain metaphor in cognitive science)
- Facilitate transfer of knowledge between domains
Metaphor in specific contexts
- Examining metaphor use in various fields provides insights into how figurative language shapes discourse and understanding in different domains
- This area of study in the Psychology of Language highlights the pervasive nature of metaphorical thinking across human activities
Metaphor in literature
- Enhances imagery and evokes sensory experiences in readers
- Conveys themes and emotions more powerfully than literal language
- Creates layered meanings and interpretations in texts
- Reflects cultural and historical contexts of literary works
- Serves as a tool for character development and world-building in fiction
Metaphor in politics
- Frames political issues and shapes public perception (War on drugs, trickle-down economics)
- Simplifies complex policies for broader audience understanding
- Evokes emotional responses to influence voter attitudes
- Reflects and reinforces ideological positions
- Creates memorable slogans and campaign messages
Metaphor in science
- Facilitates understanding of abstract or complex scientific concepts
- Guides hypothesis formation and experimental design
- Influences the development of scientific models and theories
- Can lead to both insights and misconceptions in scientific reasoning
- Plays a role in science communication and public understanding of scientific findings
Other forms of figurative language
- While metaphors are a central focus, other forms of figurative language also play important roles in communication and cognition
- Studying these forms provides a more comprehensive understanding of figurative language processing in the field of Psychology of Language
Similes vs metaphors
- Similes use explicit comparison words (like, as) while metaphors imply comparison
- Similes often perceived as less forceful or direct than metaphors
- Processing differences exist between similes and metaphors in terms of cognitive effort
- Similes may be easier for children and language learners to understand initially
- Both forms serve similar functions in enhancing communication and conceptual understanding
Idioms and proverbs
- Idioms are fixed phrases with meanings that cannot be deduced from individual words (kick the bucket)
- Proverbs are short, memorable sayings expressing general truths or advice
- Both rely on shared cultural knowledge for interpretation
- Processing involves accessing stored meanings rather than literal interpretation
- Acquisition of idioms and proverbs is an important aspect of language proficiency
Irony and sarcasm
- Irony involves saying the opposite of what is meant, often for humorous or emphatic effect
- Sarcasm is a form of irony used to mock or convey contempt
- Require understanding of context, tone, and speaker intent for correct interpretation
- Develop later in childhood compared to other forms of figurative language
- Processing involves theory of mind and the ability to recognize discrepancies between literal and intended meanings
Individual differences
- The study of individual differences in figurative language processing is crucial for understanding cognitive diversity in language use
- This area of research in the Psychology of Language explores how personal factors influence metaphor comprehension and production
Metaphor comprehension abilities
- Vary across individuals based on factors such as cognitive flexibility and working memory capacity
- Influenced by exposure to diverse language experiences and educational background
- Correlate with general language proficiency and vocabulary size
- Can be improved through explicit instruction and practice
- Differences in metaphor comprehension abilities may impact overall communication effectiveness
Creativity and metaphor production
- Creative individuals often demonstrate greater facility in generating novel metaphors
- Divergent thinking skills positively correlate with metaphor production abilities
- Openness to experience, a personality trait, is associated with more frequent and original metaphor use
- Training in creative writing can enhance metaphor production skills
- Cultural background influences the types and domains of metaphors individuals tend to produce
Disorders affecting figurative language
- Autism Spectrum Disorders often involve difficulties in interpreting non-literal language
- Right hemisphere damage can impair the ability to understand novel metaphors
- Schizophrenia may lead to unusual or inappropriate use of figurative language
- Specific Language Impairment can affect both comprehension and production of metaphors
- Alzheimer's disease progressively impacts the ability to process complex figurative expressions
Methodologies in metaphor research
- The study of metaphor in the Psychology of Language employs various research methodologies to investigate different aspects of figurative language processing
- These approaches provide complementary insights into the cognitive, linguistic, and neural bases of metaphor comprehension and production
Psycholinguistic experiments
- Reaction time studies measure processing speed for literal vs figurative meanings
- Priming experiments investigate the activation of conceptual networks during metaphor comprehension
- Eye-tracking studies reveal real-time processing of metaphorical expressions
- Sentence completion tasks assess metaphor production abilities
- Cross-modal paradigms examine the interaction between verbal and visual metaphor processing
Corpus-based approaches
- Analyze large collections of text to identify patterns in metaphor use
- Provide insights into the frequency and distribution of metaphors in natural language
- Allow for cross-linguistic comparisons of metaphor use
- Support the development of metaphor identification algorithms
- Contribute to the creation of metaphor databases for further research
Neuroimaging studies
- fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) reveals brain regions activated during metaphor processing
- EEG (Electroencephalography) measures temporal dynamics of metaphor comprehension
- TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) investigates causal roles of brain regions in metaphor processing
- PET (Positron Emission Tomography) studies examine metabolic changes associated with figurative language use
- Combine multiple techniques for a comprehensive understanding of neural mechanisms underlying metaphor comprehension
Applications of metaphor studies
- Research on metaphors in the Psychology of Language has numerous practical applications across various fields
- These applications demonstrate the relevance of figurative language studies to real-world challenges and innovations
Metaphor in language teaching
- Enhances vocabulary acquisition by creating meaningful connections between words
- Improves reading comprehension skills for non-native speakers
- Facilitates the teaching of idiomatic expressions and cultural concepts
- Supports the development of creative writing skills in both L1 and L2 contexts
- Provides strategies for explaining grammar concepts through conceptual metaphors
Therapeutic uses of metaphor
- Cognitive Behavioral Therapy utilizes metaphors to reframe negative thought patterns
- Narrative Therapy employs metaphorical storytelling to explore personal experiences
- Metaphors in psychotherapy can help clients articulate complex emotions and experiences
- Art therapy incorporates visual metaphors to facilitate self-expression and healing
- Mindfulness practices often use nature metaphors to guide meditation and relaxation
Metaphor in artificial intelligence
- Contributes to the development of natural language processing algorithms for figurative language
- Informs the design of chatbots and virtual assistants capable of understanding contextual meanings
- Supports the creation of more human-like language generation in AI systems
- Aids in the development of metaphor-based reasoning systems for problem-solving
- Enhances machine translation capabilities for handling figurative expressions across languages
Key Terms to Review (26)
Career of Metaphor Theory: Career of Metaphor Theory proposes that metaphors are not just linguistic expressions but also shape our understanding and experiences over time. This theory suggests that metaphors evolve in their meanings and usages, influencing how we perceive reality and communicate within various contexts. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of metaphors, reflecting changes in culture, society, and individual cognition.
Cognitive function: Cognitive function refers to a range of mental processes that are involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. These processes include attention, memory, problem-solving, and language comprehension, all of which play crucial roles in how individuals interpret and engage with both literal and figurative language. Understanding cognitive function helps explain how metaphors and figurative language can enhance communication by linking new ideas to familiar concepts.
Cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistics is an interdisciplinary approach to understanding language that emphasizes the connection between language and the human mind. It focuses on how our cognitive processes shape the way we use and understand language, often through concepts like metaphor and figurative language. This field explores how mental representations influence linguistic structures and meaning-making in communication.
Conceptual metaphor: A conceptual metaphor is a cognitive framework that allows individuals to understand one idea or concept in terms of another, shaping our perceptions and interactions with the world. This idea is central to understanding how language is used creatively and meaningfully, as metaphors are not just linguistic expressions but reflect deeper cognitive processes. They help structure our thoughts, guide our behavior, and influence how we communicate complex ideas in relatable ways.
Constraint satisfaction model: The constraint satisfaction model is a cognitive framework that explains how individuals resolve ambiguities in language by simultaneously considering multiple constraints during the comprehension process. This approach emphasizes that understanding language, especially metaphor and figurative language, involves a dynamic interplay between various linguistic and contextual factors, allowing people to make sense of non-literal expressions effectively.
Contextualization: Contextualization refers to the process of placing information or concepts within a specific context to enhance understanding and meaning. This involves considering the circumstances, cultural background, and situational elements that influence the interpretation of language, especially when it comes to metaphor and figurative language, which often rely heavily on context for their full impact and significance.
Dead metaphor: A dead metaphor is a figure of speech that has lost its original meaning or impact due to overuse and is no longer recognized as a metaphor by speakers. It often functions as a conventional expression, where the figurative language has become so familiar that the metaphorical aspect is forgotten, allowing for seamless communication without the vivid imagery that typically characterizes metaphors.
Direct access view: The direct access view is a theory in the psychology of language that suggests that individuals can comprehend figurative language, such as metaphors, through immediate and direct connections to their conceptual knowledge, without needing to go through a literal interpretation first. This perspective emphasizes how people draw on their experiences and existing knowledge to understand figurative expressions effortlessly, showcasing the interplay between language and cognition.
Embodied cognition: Embodied cognition is the theory that our thoughts, understanding, and reasoning are deeply rooted in the body's interactions with the world. This means that our physical experiences and sensory perceptions significantly influence how we think and communicate. This concept is crucial for understanding how metaphor and figurative language work, as well as the interplay between language and thought, cognitive linguistics, and even speech perception.
Emotion Concept Study: The emotion concept study investigates how people understand and categorize emotions, often using metaphor and figurative language to express complex emotional experiences. This study explores the interplay between linguistic expression and emotional cognition, revealing how metaphorical language shapes our perceptions and understandings of different emotions.
Figurative vs. Literal Language: Figurative language uses creative expressions, such as metaphors and similes, to convey meanings beyond the literal interpretation of words, while literal language communicates information directly and explicitly. Understanding the distinction is crucial because figurative language can add depth and emotional resonance to communication, whereas literal language is essential for clarity and straightforwardness in conveying facts.
Frame shifting: Frame shifting is the process of changing one's perspective or understanding of a situation by adopting different frames or contexts. This cognitive flexibility allows individuals to interpret information in various ways, particularly when engaging with metaphor and figurative language, as it helps convey deeper meanings beyond literal interpretations.
George Lakoff: George Lakoff is a prominent cognitive linguist and philosopher known for his work on how language shapes our understanding of the world through metaphor and conceptual frameworks. His ideas connect deeply with the study of figurative language, emphasizing that our thoughts and actions are significantly influenced by the metaphors we use. He introduced groundbreaking theories that link language, cognition, and social behavior, highlighting how our embodied experiences shape the way we conceptualize and communicate complex ideas.
Graded salience hypothesis: The graded salience hypothesis suggests that the meanings of words and phrases are not equally prominent; instead, some meanings are more readily activated than others based on context and frequency of use. This idea highlights how language users prioritize certain interpretations, especially in metaphor and figurative language, where multiple meanings can coexist.
Implicit vs. explicit metaphors: Implicit and explicit metaphors are two distinct types of figurative language that compare one thing to another to create meaning. An implicit metaphor suggests the comparison without directly stating it, relying on the context and language to convey the connection. In contrast, an explicit metaphor makes the comparison clear by directly stating it, making it easier for the audience to understand the intended meaning.
Lakoff and Johnson's Theory: Lakoff and Johnson's Theory, primarily presented in their book 'Metaphors We Live By,' argues that metaphor is a fundamental part of human thought, not just language. This theory posits that our understanding of abstract concepts is shaped by metaphorical structures, which influence how we think and communicate about various experiences, emotions, and social interactions.
Mark Turner: Mark Turner is a prominent cognitive scientist known for his work on metaphor, language, and cognition. He emphasizes how metaphors shape our understanding of the world, influencing both thought processes and linguistic expression. His ideas have significantly advanced the study of how figurative language functions in human communication, illustrating the deep connections between metaphor and meaning.
Metaphor Identification Procedure: The Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) is a systematic method for identifying metaphorical language in discourse. It helps researchers and linguists discern between literal and metaphorical meanings by focusing on the linguistic features that signal metaphors, providing a framework for analyzing how metaphors function in communication and thought.
Metaphorical framing: Metaphorical framing refers to the use of metaphor to shape our understanding and interpretation of complex concepts and experiences. This technique helps convey meaning by linking unfamiliar ideas to familiar ones, influencing how we perceive reality and make decisions. Through metaphorical framing, language is not just a tool for communication, but a means to construct and manipulate thought patterns.
Metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. It often involves using a related concept to stand in for the actual thing, making language more vivid and evocative. This technique allows for deeper connections between ideas, enriching communication and conveying meaning beyond the literal.
Neuroimaging studies: Neuroimaging studies are research techniques that visualize the structure and function of the brain, allowing researchers to observe how different areas of the brain are activated during various tasks. These studies, such as fMRI and PET scans, provide insight into cognitive processes like language development, memory, and understanding complex concepts. By examining brain activity, these studies help researchers connect neural mechanisms with language use and comprehension.
Persuasive function: The persuasive function of language refers to its ability to influence, convince, or motivate an audience to adopt a particular viewpoint or take a specific action. This function is closely tied to the use of rhetorical strategies, including metaphor and figurative language, which enhance the emotional appeal and effectiveness of communication. Understanding how persuasive language operates can shed light on its role in shaping beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors in various contexts.
Primary metaphors: Primary metaphors are foundational, instinctive connections that humans make between different concepts based on embodied experiences. They arise from our physical interactions with the world and form the basis for more complex metaphorical thinking. These metaphors serve as a bridge, allowing individuals to understand abstract concepts through more tangible, concrete experiences.
Semantic mapping: Semantic mapping is a visual representation that illustrates the relationships between words and their meanings, helping to organize and clarify language concepts. This technique enhances understanding by showing connections among related terms, which is particularly useful in grasping complex ideas or figurative language. It is also significant in tracing the evolution of language and how humans have developed ways to express abstract thoughts through metaphors and symbols.
Simile: A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things using the words 'like' or 'as' to highlight a shared characteristic. This comparison helps create vivid imagery and enhances understanding by connecting the unfamiliar with the familiar. Similes are an essential part of figurative language, allowing writers and speakers to convey emotions, characteristics, and experiences in a more relatable way.
Structure-mapping theory: Structure-mapping theory is a cognitive framework that explains how people understand and create metaphors by identifying correspondences between different domains. This theory posits that metaphorical reasoning is based on mapping relationships and structures from a familiar source domain onto a less familiar target domain, facilitating comprehension and meaning-making. By focusing on relational similarities rather than superficial features, this approach reveals the underlying cognitive processes involved in figurative language.