3.4 Military coups and the establishment of authoritarian regimes
3 min read•july 23, 2024
Military coups and authoritarian regimes shaped Middle Eastern politics after colonialism. Weak institutions, socio-economic challenges, and ideological factors fueled instability. The military, seen as capable, seized power to address crises, often becoming entrenched.
Authoritarian rule led to restricted political participation, curtailed civil liberties, and human rights abuses. Opposition movements faced , limited organizational capacity, and fragmentation. International support for regimes prioritized stability over democratic reforms, complicating change efforts.
Factors Contributing to Military Coups and Authoritarian Regimes
Factors of Middle Eastern coups
Top images from around the web for Factors of Middle Eastern coups
Timeline of Middle Eastern history - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Small regimes in the Middle East: a conceptual and theoretical alternative to small states in a ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Israel-India Military Relations: Ideological Paradigms of Security : Peoples Dispatch View original
Is this image relevant?
Timeline of Middle Eastern history - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Small regimes in the Middle East: a conceptual and theoretical alternative to small states in a ... View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Factors of Middle Eastern coups
Timeline of Middle Eastern history - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Small regimes in the Middle East: a conceptual and theoretical alternative to small states in a ... View original
Is this image relevant?
Israel-India Military Relations: Ideological Paradigms of Security : Peoples Dispatch View original
Is this image relevant?
Timeline of Middle Eastern history - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Small regimes in the Middle East: a conceptual and theoretical alternative to small states in a ... View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- following the end of colonialism created power vacuums left by departing colonial powers (Britain, France) and weak political institutions lacking democratic traditions
- Socio-economic challenges including high levels of poverty, income inequality, rapid population growth, urbanization, and limited economic opportunities fueled discontent
- Ideological factors such as the rise of , , and the influence of socialist and leftist ideologies (, ) contributed to the perceived failures of civilian governments to address national issues
- Military often seen as the most organized and capable institution, with officers having modern education and exposure to Western ideas, and playing a role in national liberation struggles () and post-independence politics
Military coups vs authoritarian regimes
- Military coups served as a means for officers to seize power, justified as necessary to address political and economic crises, and often presented as temporary measures to restore stability
- Military leaders consolidated power by suspending or abolishing constitutions and parliaments, banning political parties, suppressing opposition, and establishing single-party systems (Egypt under Nasser) or personalistic rule (Libya under Gaddafi)
- Militarization of politics and society occurred through:
- Military officers occupying key government positions
- Expansion of the military's role in the economy and social affairs
- Use of military courts and security apparatus to control the population
Consequences of Authoritarian Rule and Challenges to Democracy
Impact of authoritarianism in Middle East
- Restrictions on political participation through limitations on free and fair elections, suppression of opposition parties and movements (Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt), and centralization of power in the hands of the ruling elite
- Curtailment of civil liberties, including restrictions on freedom of speech, press, and assembly, censorship and control of media outlets, and surveillance and monitoring of citizens' activities
- Human rights abuses such as arbitrary arrests and detentions, torture and mistreatment of prisoners ( in Syria), extrajudicial killings, and forced disappearances
Challenges for opposition movements
- Repression and intimidation by security forces through arrests and imprisonment of activists and dissidents, use of violence and torture to suppress opposition, and creation of a climate of fear and self-censorship
- Limitations on organizational capacity due to restrictions on the formation and operation of civil society organizations, difficulties in mobilizing and coordinating opposition activities, and limited access to resources and international support
- Fragmentation and co-optation of opposition through:
- Divide and rule tactics employed by the regime
- Co-optation of opposition figures through patronage and incentives
- Exploitation of ethnic, religious, and ideological divisions within the opposition
- International support for authoritarian regimes, with foreign powers prioritizing stability and security concerns, providing economic and military assistance to authoritarian governments (US support for Saudi Arabia), and exerting limited pressure for democratic reforms
Key Terms to Review (21)
Algerian War of Independence: The Algerian War of Independence was a brutal conflict that lasted from 1954 to 1962, during which Algeria fought against French colonial rule to achieve sovereignty. This war not only marked a significant moment in Algerian history but also reflected broader anti-colonial sentiments and the struggle for self-determination across the globe, leading to the establishment of a one-party state and military rule in post-independence Algeria.
Ali Abdullah Saleh: Ali Abdullah Saleh was the President of Yemen from 1978 until his resignation in 2012, serving as a key figure in Yemen's transition from a divided state to a unified republic. His leadership was marked by authoritarian rule, military control, and his involvement in the broader regional dynamics of the Middle East, especially during times of protest and upheaval.
Anti-imperialism: Anti-imperialism is a political stance that opposes the domination of one nation over another through colonization, military conquest, or economic control. This ideology emerged in response to the imperialist practices of powerful nations, advocating for self-determination and independence for colonized or oppressed peoples. It connects deeply with movements aimed at rejecting foreign intervention and asserting national sovereignty, often manifesting in social and political movements against imperial powers.
Arab Nationalism: Arab nationalism is a political and cultural ideology that seeks to unify Arab people based on shared language, culture, history, and identity, promoting the idea of a single Arab nation. This ideology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, largely in response to Ottoman rule and Western colonialism, shaping the political landscape of the Middle East in significant ways.
Ba'athism: Ba'athism is a political ideology that emerged in the mid-20th century, advocating for Arab nationalism, socialism, and unity across Arab nations. It seeks to create a single Arab state and promote socio-economic reform through a strong centralized government, often leading to authoritarian regimes that utilize military power to maintain control.
Civil disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain laws, demands, or commands of a government or occupying power, based on moral or ethical grounds. It often involves peaceful protests and nonviolent resistance, aiming to highlight perceived injustices or to advocate for social and political change. This form of protest can challenge authoritarian regimes and military coups, bringing attention to issues that may be ignored by those in power.
Civil-Military Relations: Civil-military relations refer to the dynamics and interactions between civilian authorities and military organizations in a state. This relationship is crucial in determining how power is distributed, the role of the military in governance, and the impact on democracy and authoritarianism. The balance between civilian oversight and military autonomy often shapes the political landscape, influencing the emergence of regimes and governance practices.
Cold War Interventions: Cold War interventions refer to the strategic actions taken by superpowers, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union, to influence political developments in various countries around the world during the Cold War era. These interventions often involved military support, covert operations, and diplomatic pressure to either support or undermine regimes, especially in regions like the Middle East, where military coups frequently led to the establishment of authoritarian regimes aligned with one superpower or the other.
Democratic backsliding: Democratic backsliding refers to the gradual decline in the quality and effectiveness of democracy, often manifested through the erosion of civil liberties, weakening of institutions, and the concentration of power in the hands of a few. This process can occur in established democracies or emerging democracies and is often triggered by military coups that disrupt democratic governance, leading to authoritarian regimes. As democracies deteriorate, the political landscape shifts, impacting civic engagement and public trust in government.
Foreign Intervention: Foreign intervention refers to the involvement of external powers in the internal affairs of a sovereign state, often through military, political, or economic means. This involvement can influence governance, conflict resolution, or the establishment of authority and can lead to significant shifts in a nation's political landscape.
Geopolitical strategies: Geopolitical strategies refer to the plans and actions employed by states and other actors to gain influence and control over geographic areas, resources, and political entities. These strategies often involve a combination of military, economic, and diplomatic efforts aimed at maximizing national interests in the context of global power dynamics. In regions affected by military coups, these strategies can lead to the establishment of authoritarian regimes as new leaders seek to consolidate power and reshape alliances.
Hosni Mubarak: Hosni Mubarak was an Egyptian military officer and politician who served as the President of Egypt from 1981 until his resignation in 2011. His presidency is often characterized by authoritarian rule, a close relationship with the military, and significant political repression, which have influenced Egypt's political landscape and regional dynamics.
Military junta: A military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders who have taken control, often following a coup d'état. This type of regime typically arises when the military intervenes in politics, seizing power from a civilian government under the justification of restoring order or national security. Military juntas are characterized by authoritarian governance, limited political freedoms, and the suspension of democratic processes.
Nasserism: Nasserism is a political ideology and movement named after Gamal Abdel Nasser, the second President of Egypt, which promotes Arab nationalism, anti-imperialism, and socialism. It emerged in the mid-20th century, advocating for unity among Arab states and social justice, often associated with military coups that established authoritarian regimes in the region.
Political Instability: Political instability refers to the frequent changes in political leadership and government, characterized by unrest, violence, or a lack of effective governance. This concept often manifests in military coups, social upheaval, and a general inability to maintain a stable political environment. When political systems face challenges such as authoritarianism or societal unrest, it can lead to instability that affects citizens' daily lives and hinders national development.
Political Islam: Political Islam refers to the ideologies and movements that seek to establish a political order based on Islamic principles and laws. It encompasses a wide range of groups and beliefs, from moderate political parties that aim to integrate Islam into governance, to radical movements that advocate for an Islamic state through violent means. The development of political Islam is often tied to historical events such as military coups and authoritarian rule, where Islam has been used as a rallying point for opposition or as a tool for legitimizing state power.
Political Patronage: Political patronage refers to the practice where political leaders provide jobs, favors, or resources to supporters in exchange for their loyalty and political backing. This system can create networks of allegiance that bolster the power of the patron while often undermining democratic principles and promoting corruption. It is particularly significant in contexts where political stability relies on maintaining a loyal base, such as during military coups or in systems with fragmented governance.
Repression: Repression refers to the act of suppressing dissent, opposition, or any form of resistance against a regime or authority, often through the use of coercive measures. This concept is closely linked to military coups and the establishment of authoritarian regimes, where those in power use repression to maintain control, eliminate threats, and stifle political pluralism, ensuring their rule remains unchallenged. It manifests in various forms, including censorship, imprisonment, violence, and intimidation of political opponents.
Resource Curse: The resource curse refers to the paradox where countries rich in natural resources, such as oil and minerals, often experience less economic growth, less democracy, and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources. This phenomenon occurs due to a variety of factors, including corruption, lack of diversification, and conflict over resource control, which can lead to political instability and authoritarianism.
Tadmur Prison: Tadmur Prison, also known as Palmyra Prison, is a notorious prison located in Syria, infamous for its harsh conditions and the brutal treatment of inmates. Built in the 1960s, it became a symbol of the repressive tactics employed by the Syrian regime to suppress dissent, particularly following military coups that established authoritarian rule in the country. The prison has been associated with torture, forced disappearances, and political imprisonment, reflecting the broader climate of fear and control used by the regime to maintain power.
Uprising: An uprising is a rebellion or revolt against an established authority, often characterized by collective action from a group of people who seek to challenge or overthrow the existing government or regime. This term is closely tied to moments of social and political unrest, where citizens mobilize in response to grievances such as oppression, injustice, or economic hardship. Uprisings can result in significant changes within a society, potentially leading to new governance structures or the re-establishment of power.