13.2 Sectarian dimensions of the rivalry: Sunni vs. Shia
4 min read•july 23, 2024
The Iran-Saudi rivalry is deeply rooted in theological differences between and Islam. This divide, originating from a succession dispute after Prophet Muhammad's death, shapes their religious practices, beliefs, and political structures.
Sectarianism plays a crucial role in both countries' foreign and domestic policies. Iran supports Shia groups across the Middle East, while Saudi Arabia counters this influence by backing Sunni factions. This rivalry extends beyond politics, influencing religious ideologies and regional power dynamics.
Theological Differences and Sectarianism in the Iran-Saudi Rivalry
Sunni vs Shia theological differences
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- The Sunni-Shia divide originated from a dispute over the succession of leadership after the death of Prophet Muhammad
- Sunnis believe Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close companion and father-in-law, was the rightful successor chosen by the Muslim community
- Shias believe Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the legitimate successor appointed by Muhammad himself
- Sunnis rely on the Quran and the Sunnah (the practices and teachings of Muhammad) as the primary sources of Islamic law and guidance for daily life
- Shias consider the Quran and the teachings of the Imams (descendants of Ali) as the main sources of Islamic law and spiritual authority
- Shias believe in the infallibility of the Imams and their divine right to lead the Muslim community as divinely appointed leaders
- Sunnis do not ascribe divine qualities to their leaders and view them as human beings subject to error, chosen by the community based on their qualifications
- Differences in religious practices and rituals exist between Sunnis and Shias
- Shias place greater emphasis on the commemoration of Ashura, the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali (grandson of Muhammad) in the
- Sunnis do not observe Ashura with the same intensity as Shias, focusing more on the celebration of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha
Sectarianism in Iran-Saudi foreign policy
- Iran, as a Shia-majority country, aims to support and empower Shia communities across the Middle East as part of its foreign policy objectives
- Iran provides financial, military, and political support to Shia groups like in Lebanon and Shia militias in Iraq ()
- Iran's involvement in the Syrian civil war is partly driven by its desire to protect the Alawite (a Shia offshoot) regime of Bashar al-Assad, a key regional ally
- Saudi Arabia, a Sunni-majority country, seeks to counter Iran's influence and maintain its position as the leader of the Sunni Muslim world through its foreign policy actions
- Saudi Arabia has supported Sunni groups and governments in the region, such as the Sunni opposition in Syria and the Sunni-led government in Bahrain during the Arab Spring protests
- The Saudi-led intervention in Yemen is largely seen as an attempt to prevent the Shia Houthi rebels, allegedly backed by Iran, from gaining power and threatening Saudi Arabia's southern border
Sectarian impact on domestic politics
- In Iran, the Shia clerical establishment holds significant political power and influences domestic policies, shaping the country's governance
- The Iranian government's legitimacy is closely tied to its role as the defender of Shia Islam and the Islamic Revolution, with the Supreme Leader holding ultimate authority
- Sectarian identity is a crucial factor in Iranian politics, with Shia religious leaders often shaping public opinion and policy decisions through their influence on the population
- In Saudi Arabia, the ruling Al Saud family derives its legitimacy from its alliance with the Wahhabi religious establishment, a conservative Sunni movement that dominates the country's religious landscape
- The Saudi government promotes Wahhabi Islam as the official state religion and enforces strict adherence to Sunni Islamic practices, such as gender segregation and dress codes
- Sectarian tensions in Saudi Arabia are evident in the marginalization and discrimination faced by the Shia minority, particularly in the Eastern Province, where they face limited political representation and economic opportunities
Religious ideology in Iran-Saudi rivalry
- The Iranian Revolution of 1979 established an Islamic republic based on Shia theology, challenging Saudi Arabia's claim to leadership in the Muslim world and setting the stage for ideological rivalry
- Iran's revolutionary ideology, which emphasizes the export of Islamic revolution and support for Shia communities, is perceived as a threat by Saudi Arabia, which fears the spread of Iranian influence
- The Iranian government's anti-Western and anti-Saudi rhetoric is often couched in religious terms, portraying the rivalry as a battle between true Islam (Shia) and corrupt Islam (Sunni) backed by Western powers
- Saudi Arabia's Wahhabi ideology, which promotes a strict and puritanical interpretation of Sunni Islam, is used to counter Iran's influence and assert Saudi Arabia's religious authority
- The Saudi government has funded the spread of Wahhabi Islam through religious institutions, mosques, and educational materials worldwide, seeking to promote its version of Islam
- The Saudi religious establishment often depicts Shias as heretics and enemies of true Islam, fueling sectarian animosity and portraying the rivalry with Iran as a religious duty to defend Sunni Islam
Key Terms to Review (19)
Ali ibn Abi Talib: Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad and is a central figure in Islamic history, revered particularly by Shia Muslims as the first Imam. His leadership and role during the early years of Islam have significant implications for the sectarian divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, shaping their differing beliefs about rightful leadership in the Muslim community.
Ayatollah Khomeini: Ayatollah Khomeini was a prominent Shia cleric and political leader who played a crucial role in the 1979 Iranian Revolution, leading to the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. His ideology combined Islamic principles with anti-imperialist sentiment, which galvanized mass support and shaped Iran's political landscape, influencing both regional and sectarian dynamics.
Battle of Karbala: The Battle of Karbala was a significant event that took place on October 10, 680 CE (10th of Muharram in the year 61 AH), where the forces of Yazid I confronted and ultimately killed Hussein ibn Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. This battle became a defining moment in the Sunni-Shia divide, symbolizing the struggle against oppression and injustice for Shia Muslims, while also marking a key point in Islamic history that shaped sectarian identities.
Communalism: Communalism refers to a political and social ideology that emphasizes the organization of society into smaller, self-governing communities based on shared cultural or religious identities. This concept is particularly significant in the context of sectarian divisions, as it often leads to heightened tensions and conflicts, especially between groups like Sunni and Shia Muslims, where communal identities can overshadow national or secular affiliations.
Ethnic cleansing: Ethnic cleansing refers to the systematic and intentional removal or extermination of an ethnic or religious group from a particular territory, often through violent means. This term is particularly significant in the context of sectarian rivalries, as it often arises during conflicts where one group seeks to eliminate another, fueled by deep-rooted animosities and power struggles.
Ethnopolitical conflict: Ethnopolitical conflict refers to a type of political struggle that arises from ethnic differences, where groups compete for power, resources, or recognition based on their distinct ethnic identities. This form of conflict often intersects with issues of religion, culture, and historical grievances, leading to intense rivalries, especially in regions with diverse populations. In the context of sectarian divisions, such as Sunni and Shia Islam, these conflicts can manifest in violent confrontations and political instability.
Hezbollah: Hezbollah is a Lebanese militant group and political party that emerged in the early 1980s, primarily as a response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982. It combines armed resistance with social and political activities, playing a significant role in Lebanon's internal politics and regional dynamics.
Identity politics: Identity politics refers to political movements and beliefs that are based on the interests and perspectives of social groups with shared characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, religion, or gender. This approach emphasizes the importance of identity in shaping political views and behaviors, often leading to increased awareness and advocacy for marginalized communities. In certain contexts, especially in the Middle East, identity politics plays a crucial role in sectarian divisions and conflicts as well as in civil strife, where group identities significantly influence political dynamics.
Islamic Revolution in Iran: The Islamic Revolution in Iran, also known as the 1979 Iranian Revolution, was a series of events that resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. This significant transformation reshaped Iran's political landscape and had far-reaching implications for Sunni-Shia relations in the region, highlighting the sectarian dimensions of rivalry within Islam.
Political fragmentation: Political fragmentation refers to the division of political authority and allegiance within a state or region, leading to multiple groups or factions competing for power and influence. This situation often results in weakened governance, instability, and challenges in implementing cohesive policies. In regions marked by ethnic, sectarian, or regional divisions, political fragmentation can hinder efforts toward national unity and effective governance.
Popular Mobilization Forces: The Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) is an umbrella organization of predominantly Shia militias in Iraq that were formed to counter the rise of ISIS and provide security in the country. The PMF gained legitimacy through their integration into the Iraqi state, allowing them to play a significant role in shaping Iraq's security landscape, often reflecting the broader Sunni-Shia rivalry within the region.
Sadr Movement: The Sadr Movement is a Shia political and religious movement in Iraq, founded by Muqtada al-Sadr, that emerged in the late 1990s and gained significant influence following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. It represents a key faction within the broader Shia community, focusing on social justice, anti-corruption, and Iraqi nationalism, often positioning itself against foreign influence and rival Shia groups.
Saudi-Iranian rivalry: The Saudi-Iranian rivalry refers to the ongoing political and ideological conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran, rooted in their differing interpretations of Islam and their competing regional ambitions. This rivalry has profound sectarian dimensions, with Saudi Arabia representing Sunni Islam and Iran being a predominantly Shia Muslim state, contributing to broader tensions in the Middle East and affecting global geopolitical dynamics.
Sectarian governance: Sectarian governance refers to a political system where power and authority are distributed based on sectarian identities, primarily within the context of religious or ethnic groups. This approach often reinforces divisions and can exacerbate tensions between different communities, especially in regions where sectarian identities, such as Sunni and Shia Islam, play a significant role in political dynamics and social relations.
Sectarian violence: Sectarian violence refers to conflict and aggression between different religious or ethnic groups, often driven by deep-seated historical grievances and identity politics. This type of violence is especially pronounced in regions with diverse religious demographics, where groups such as Sunnis and Shias may clash over political power, religious authority, and social justice. It can escalate during periods of political upheaval or social unrest, contributing to cycles of retaliation and further polarization within communities.
Sectarianism theory: Sectarianism theory refers to the framework used to understand the division and conflict between different religious sects, particularly within Islam, such as Sunni and Shia. This theory examines how these divisions influence political behavior, social relations, and power dynamics, often leading to rivalries, violence, and social fragmentation. The sectarian lens is crucial for analyzing contemporary conflicts in the Middle East where Sunni and Shia identities shape both internal politics and international relations.
Shia: Shia is one of the two main branches of Islam, distinguished from Sunni Islam by its belief in the rightful leadership of Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad. Shia Muslims emphasize the importance of the Imamate, a leadership role held by a series of Imams who are considered to be divinely appointed and infallible. This distinction contributes to a rich tapestry of religious beliefs and practices, and significantly shapes the political and social dynamics in the Middle East.
Sunni: Sunni is the largest denomination of Islam, representing about 85-90% of the global Muslim population. Sunnis believe in the legitimacy of the first four caliphs as rightful successors to the Prophet Muhammad and follow a more community-oriented interpretation of Islamic teachings, distinguishing themselves from Shia Muslims who have different beliefs about leadership and authority within Islam.
U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East refers to the strategic decisions and actions taken by the United States government to influence political, economic, and military developments in the region. This policy has been shaped by various factors, including national security interests, economic considerations, and historical relationships with regional actors. The dynamics of Sunni and Shia rivalry play a crucial role in shaping U.S. engagement, as the U.S. often finds itself navigating complex sectarian tensions that influence alliances and conflicts in the area.