10.3 Responses to protest movements in other Middle Eastern countries
4 min read•july 23, 2024
The Arab Spring sparked protests in , , and , demanding political reforms and regime change. Each country's response varied, with Bahrain suppressing protests, Syria descending into , and Yemen facing ongoing conflict and humanitarian crisis.
Authoritarian regimes showed resilience through loyal security forces, exploitation of sectarian divides, and international support. and played crucial roles, while in Syria and Yemen prolonged conflicts and complicated resolution efforts.
Protest Movements in Bahrain, Syria, and Yemen
Success of protest movements
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- Bahrain
- Protests began in February 2011 inspired by the Arab Spring demanded political reforms and greater freedoms
- Government responded with a violent crackdown aided by and other states (GCC)
- Protest movement was ultimately suppressed with limited concessions from the government
- Syria
- Protests began in March 2011 calling for democratic reforms and the end of 's rule
- Government responded with a brutal crackdown leading to an armed rebellion and civil war
- Conflict became internationalized with regional and global powers supporting different factions (Russia, , US, Turkey)
- Despite significant territorial losses Assad's regime has survived albeit with a diminished grip on power
- Yemen
- Protests began in early 2011 demanding the resignation of President
- Saleh agreed to transfer power to his deputy in November 2011
- Hadi's government faced challenges from , southern separatists, and Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)
- Civil war erupted in 2014 with the Houthis capturing the capital Sanaa and forcing Hadi into exile
- Conflict has become a proxy war between Saudi Arabia and Iran with devastating humanitarian consequences
Resilience of authoritarian regimes
- Loyalty of security forces
- Many authoritarian regimes such as Syria and Bahrain maintained the loyalty of their armed forces and security apparatus willing to use violence against protesters to maintain the status quo
- Sectarian and tribal loyalties
- Some regimes exploited sectarian and tribal divisions to rally support and undermine opposition movements (Alawite minority in Syria, Sunni minority in Bahrain)
- International support
- Certain authoritarian regimes received support from regional and international allies
- Saudi Arabia and other GCC states intervened in Bahrain to support the monarchy
- Russia and Iran provided military and diplomatic support to the Syrian government
- Certain authoritarian regimes received support from regional and international allies
- Fragmentation of opposition
- Opposition movements in some countries were divided along ideological, ethnic, or sectarian lines weakening their ability to challenge the regime effectively
Role of Sectarianism, Tribalism, and International Intervention
Role of sectarian loyalties
- Bahrain
- Protests largely driven by the Shia majority who faced discrimination from the Sunni-led government
- Sunni minority including the ruling Al Khalifa family feared losing power and privileges
- Government portrayed protests as a Shia uprising backed by Iran to mobilize Sunni support
- Syria
- Alawite minority which dominates the government and security forces remained largely loyal to the regime
- Sunni majority formed the backbone of the opposition movement
- Sectarian polarization intensified as the conflict progressed with the rise of extremist groups (ISIS)
- Yemen
- Houthi rebels who follow the Zaydi branch of Shia Islam have been in conflict with the central government for years
- Houthis have also clashed with Sunni tribal forces and AQAP
- Sectarian and tribal loyalties have contributed to the fragmentation of the country and the complexity of the conflict
Impact of international intervention
- Syria
- Russia and Iran have provided crucial military and diplomatic support to the Assad regime
- Russia intervened militarily in 2015 helping to turn the tide of the war in Assad's favor
- Iran has provided financial support, weapons, and Shia militias to bolster the Syrian government
- The United States, Turkey, and some Gulf states have supported various opposition groups with funding, weapons, and training
- However, support has been inconsistent and sometimes conflicting weakening the opposition
- International involvement has prolonged the conflict and made a political solution more difficult
- Russia and Iran have provided crucial military and diplomatic support to the Assad regime
- Yemen
- Saudi Arabia has led a military intervention since 2015 to support the Hadi government against the Houthis
- Saudi-led coalition has conducted airstrikes and provided ground forces
- Intervention has been criticized for causing civilian casualties and exacerbating the humanitarian crisis
- Iran has provided support to the Houthis although the extent of this support is disputed
- Iran has allegedly supplied weapons and training to the Houthis
- Houthi use of Iranian-made missiles has been a point of contention
- The United States has supported the Saudi-led coalition with intelligence, logistics, and weapons sales
- International intervention has internationalized the conflict and made it more difficult to resolve through negotiations
- Saudi Arabia has led a military intervention since 2015 to support the Hadi government against the Houthis
Key Terms to Review (23)
Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi: Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi is a Yemeni politician who served as the President of Yemen from 2012 until he was ousted in 2015. His presidency followed the Arab Spring protests that led to the resignation of long-time leader Ali Abdullah Saleh, and Hadi's leadership was characterized by attempts at political reform amidst ongoing conflict and instability in Yemen.
Ali Abdullah Saleh: Ali Abdullah Saleh was the President of Yemen from 1978 until his resignation in 2012, serving as a key figure in Yemen's transition from a divided state to a unified republic. His leadership was marked by authoritarian rule, military control, and his involvement in the broader regional dynamics of the Middle East, especially during times of protest and upheaval.
Bahrain: Bahrain is a small island nation in the Persian Gulf, known for its strategic location and significant role in the region's geopolitical dynamics. The country has witnessed notable protest movements, particularly during the Arab Spring in 2011, which sparked a series of demonstrations against the ruling monarchy, reflecting broader discontent with political repression and social inequality.
Bashar al-Assad: Bashar al-Assad is the current President of Syria, having taken office in July 2000 after the death of his father, Hafez al-Assad. His leadership has been marked by authoritarian rule, political repression, and the brutal response to protests that erupted during the Arab Spring, which escalated into a devastating civil war that has drawn international involvement and regional complexities.
Civil War: A civil war is an armed conflict between groups within the same country or state, often driven by political, social, or economic grievances. These wars typically involve organized factions vying for control over the government or competing for greater autonomy and rights, leading to significant disruption and loss of life within the affected region.
Curfews: Curfews are official restrictions placed on the movement of individuals during certain hours, usually enforced by governments during periods of unrest or emergency. In the context of responses to protests, curfews can serve as a tool for controlling crowds and preventing civil disorder, but they can also escalate tensions between authorities and citizens.
Foreign Intervention: Foreign intervention refers to the involvement of external powers in the internal affairs of a sovereign state, often through military, political, or economic means. This involvement can influence governance, conflict resolution, or the establishment of authority and can lead to significant shifts in a nation's political landscape.
Freedom of speech: Freedom of speech is the fundamental right to express one's opinions and ideas without fear of government retaliation or censorship. This right is crucial in democratic societies, as it fosters open discourse and allows citizens to challenge authority, share diverse perspectives, and advocate for social change. In the context of protest movements, this concept is essential for mobilizing public opinion and raising awareness about various issues.
Government repression: Government repression refers to the systematic suppression of dissent, opposition, and civil liberties by state authorities, often employing coercive measures such as violence, censorship, and legal persecution. This phenomenon is commonly observed in authoritarian regimes where the government seeks to maintain power and control by stifling any form of opposition or protest.
Gulf Cooperation Council: The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a regional intergovernmental organization established in 1981, consisting of six Middle Eastern countries: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. The GCC aims to promote economic, political, and military cooperation among its member states, primarily to enhance their collective security and diversify their economies away from oil dependency.
Hashtag activism: Hashtag activism refers to the use of social media hashtags to raise awareness, organize movements, and advocate for social and political change. It has become a powerful tool for individuals and groups to mobilize supporters, share information, and amplify their messages quickly across global platforms, especially in the context of various protest movements in the Middle East.
Houthi Rebels: The Houthi rebels, also known as Ansar Allah, are a militant group from northern Yemen that emerged in the 1990s. They have been a significant player in the ongoing Yemeni Civil War, which has its roots in the Arab Spring protests and has drawn in regional powers, highlighting the complexities of political movements in the Middle East.
Iran: Iran is a country in Western Asia, known for its rich history and significant geopolitical influence in the Middle East. It is the birthplace of one of the world's oldest civilizations, and its political structure, dominated by a theocratic regime, plays a crucial role in regional power dynamics, religious law, and responses to civil unrest.
Islamist movements: Islamist movements refer to political movements that seek to implement Islamic law (Sharia) and promote a political system based on Islamic principles. These movements can vary widely in their goals, strategies, and interpretations of Islam, and they often arise in response to perceived Western influence and secular governance in Muslim-majority countries. Their influence can be seen in both political activism and responses to social unrest, shaping the landscape of contemporary Middle Eastern politics.
Police brutality: Police brutality refers to the use of excessive force by law enforcement officers, often resulting in physical harm or death to civilians. This issue is especially prominent in the context of state responses to protests, where authorities may resort to violent tactics to suppress dissent. It highlights broader issues of governance, accountability, and human rights within societies, particularly in the wake of social movements demanding reform and justice.
Political Concessions: Political concessions refer to compromises or concessions made by governing authorities in response to demands or pressures from various groups, particularly during times of social unrest or protest. These concessions can take many forms, including policy changes, promises of reforms, or even the resignation of key officials, and are often aimed at de-escalating tensions and maintaining stability.
Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia is a Middle Eastern country located on the Arabian Peninsula, known for its vast deserts and significant Islamic heritage, particularly as the birthplace of Islam and home to its two holiest cities, Mecca and Medina. Its strategic geographic position, vast oil reserves, and application of Islamic law significantly shape its political landscape and regional influence.
Sectarianism: Sectarianism refers to the division of people based on their sect or religious affiliations, often leading to conflict and discrimination between different groups. This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Middle East, where diverse religious communities exist and tensions can arise from historical grievances and political power struggles.
Secular movements: Secular movements are social and political initiatives that advocate for the separation of religion from government and public life, promoting values based on reason, science, and universal ethics. These movements often arise in response to theocratic governance or religious influence over state affairs, aiming to establish a more inclusive society that respects diverse beliefs and ideologies.
Sit-ins: Sit-ins are nonviolent forms of protest where participants occupy a space, often in a public place, to demonstrate against social injustices and demand change. This tactic gained prominence in the civil rights movements of the 20th century and has since been used in various protest movements across the globe, including those in the Middle East, highlighting the resilience and determination of activists seeking political reform.
Syria: Syria is a country in the Middle East known for its rich history and cultural heritage, which has been significantly impacted by civil war and geopolitical tensions since 2011. The ongoing conflict has not only led to a humanitarian crisis but has also destabilized the region and reshaped international relations as various global powers intervene for their interests. The situation in Syria serves as a critical case study of how internal strife can influence broader regional dynamics and provoke responses from neighboring nations and global actors.
Tribalism: Tribalism refers to a social structure where loyalty and allegiance are primarily given to one's tribe or ethnic group, often leading to a strong sense of identity and community. This phenomenon is significant in various aspects of society, influencing cultural practices, demographic trends, and political responses, particularly in the complex landscape of the Middle East.
Yemen: Yemen is a country located at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and ongoing conflicts. The situation in Yemen has significant implications for regional stability and international relations, particularly given its strategic location near key maritime trade routes and its involvement in broader geopolitical rivalries.