🧗‍♀️Semiconductor Physics Unit 11 – Power Semiconductor Devices

Fundamentals of Semiconductor Physics

• Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between insulators and conductors, and their conductivity can be controlled by doping or applying electric fields
• Band structure of semiconductors consists of the valence band, conduction band, and the energy bandgap between them, which determines their electrical properties
• Intrinsic semiconductors are pure materials with equal numbers of electrons and holes, while extrinsic semiconductors are doped with impurities to create excess carriers (electrons or holes)
  • N-type semiconductors are doped with donor impurities (phosphorus, arsenic) that provide extra electrons
  • P-type semiconductors are doped with acceptor impurities (boron, gallium) that create holes by accepting electrons
• Carrier transport in semiconductors occurs through drift (under an applied electric field) and diffusion (due to concentration gradients)
• PN junctions form the basis of many semiconductor devices, created by joining p-type and n-type regions, resulting in a built-in potential barrier and depletion region
• Forward biasing a PN junction reduces the potential barrier and allows current to flow, while reverse biasing increases the barrier and blocks current flow

Types of Power Semiconductor Devices

• Power diodes are two-terminal devices that allow current to flow in one direction (forward biased) and block current in the reverse direction, used for rectification and freewheeling
• Thyristors (silicon-controlled rectifiers, SCRs) are three-terminal devices that can be switched on by a gate pulse and remain on until the current falls below a holding value, used for high-power switching and control
• Triacs are bidirectional thyristors that can conduct current in both directions, used for AC power control (dimmer switches)
• Power MOSFETs are voltage-controlled devices with high input impedance and fast switching speeds, suitable for high-frequency applications
  • Vertical double-diffused MOSFETs (VDMOSFETs) have a vertical structure with the drain on the bottom, enabling higher voltage and current ratings
• Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) combine the high input impedance of MOSFETs with the low on-state voltage drop of bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), making them suitable for medium to high-power applications
• Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTOs) are thyristors that can be turned off by applying a negative gate pulse, used in high-power applications (HVDC transmission)

Operating Principles and Characteristics

• Power semiconductor devices operate in switching mode, transitioning between on-state (low voltage drop, high current) and off-state (high voltage blocking, low leakage current)
• On-state characteristics include forward voltage drop (VF) and on-state resistance (RON), which determine conduction losses
  • Lower VF and RON are desirable for reducing power dissipation
• Off-state characteristics include breakdown voltage (VBR) and leakage current, which determine the maximum voltage the device can block and the off-state power dissipation
• Switching characteristics include turn-on and turn-off times, which affect the device's maximum operating frequency and switching losses
  • Faster switching times enable higher frequency operation and reduced passive component sizes
• Safe Operating Area (SOA) defines the voltage and current limits within which the device can operate reliably without damage
• Thermal characteristics, such as thermal resistance and maximum junction temperature, determine the device's power handling capability and cooling requirements

Device Structure and Fabrication

• Power semiconductor devices have vertical structures to support high voltages and currents, with the current flowing perpendicular to the surface
• Drift region is a lightly doped region that supports the high blocking voltage in the off-state, its thickness and doping concentration determine the breakdown voltage
• Field stop layer is a highly doped region that terminates the electric field and improves the trade-off between breakdown voltage and on-state resistance
• Carrier lifetime control techniques (gold or platinum doping, electron irradiation) are used to optimize switching speed and on-state voltage drop
• Surface passivation and edge termination structures (field plates, guard rings) are used to prevent premature breakdown at the device edges
• Packaging plays a crucial role in power devices, providing electrical insulation, thermal management, and mechanical protection
  • Power modules integrate multiple devices and passive components into a single package for improved performance and reliability

Switching Behavior and Control

• Gate drivers are circuits that provide the necessary voltage and current to control the switching of power devices, ensuring fast and reliable turn-on and turn-off
• Switching losses occur during transitions between on-state and off-state, due to the overlap of voltage and current waveforms
  • Hard switching involves abrupt transitions and higher switching losses
  • Soft switching techniques (zero-voltage or zero-current switching) reduce switching losses by shaping the waveforms
• Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is generated during switching transitions due to high $dv/dt$ and $di/dt$, requiring proper layout and filtering techniques to mitigate
• Paralleling of devices is used to increase current handling capability, requiring careful consideration of current sharing and synchronization
• Protection circuits, such as snubbers and clamps, are used to limit voltage and current stresses during switching transients

Power Loss and Thermal Management

• Conduction losses are caused by the on-state voltage drop and resistance, proportional to the square of the current ($P_{cond} = I^2R_{ON}$)
• Switching losses are caused by the overlap of voltage and current during transitions, proportional to the switching frequency ($P_{sw} = \frac{1}{2}VI_{on}t_{on}f_{sw} + \frac{1}{2}VI_{off}t_{off}f_{sw}$)
• Thermal resistance ($R_{th}$) is a measure of the device's ability to dissipate heat, from junction to case ($R_{th,jc}$), case to heatsink ($R_{th,cs}$), and heatsink to ambient ($R_{th,sa}$)
  • Lower thermal resistance enables better heat dissipation and higher power handling capability
• Heatsinks are used to increase the surface area for heat dissipation and reduce the thermal resistance from case to ambient
• Thermal interface materials (TIMs) are used to improve thermal contact between the device case and heatsink, filling air gaps and reducing thermal resistance
• Liquid cooling systems, such as cold plates or immersion cooling, are used in high-power applications to provide more effective heat removal

Applications in Power Electronics

• Power converters are circuits that process and control the flow of electrical power, using power semiconductor devices as switches
  • DC-DC converters (buck, boost, buck-boost) change voltage levels
  • AC-DC rectifiers convert alternating current to direct current
  • DC-AC inverters convert direct current to alternating current
  • AC-AC converters (matrix converters) directly convert between AC voltages and frequencies
• Motor drives use power devices to control the speed and torque of electric motors, enabling energy-efficient operation and precise motion control
• Renewable energy systems, such as solar inverters and wind power converters, use power devices to interface with the grid and maximize power extraction
• Automotive applications, including electric vehicle (EV) traction inverters and on-board chargers, require high-power density and reliability
• Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and energy storage systems use power devices for backup power and grid support

Advanced Topics and Future Trends

• Wide bandgap (WBG) semiconductors, such as silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), offer superior properties compared to silicon, including higher breakdown voltage, lower on-state resistance, and faster switching speeds
  • WBG devices enable higher efficiency, higher power density, and higher temperature operation
• Integration of power devices, gate drivers, and protection circuits into monolithic power integrated circuits (PICs) reduces size, cost, and parasitic inductances
• Advanced packaging techniques, such as 3D packaging and chip-on-chip (CoC), improve electrical and thermal performance by reducing interconnect lengths and increasing heat dissipation
• High-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems use power devices for efficient long-distance power transmission and grid interconnection
• Fault-tolerant topologies and control strategies are being developed to improve the reliability and availability of power electronic systems
• Intelligent power modules (IPMs) integrate sensing, protection, and communication functions to enable condition monitoring and predictive maintenance
• Wide bandgap devices and advanced packaging technologies are expected to drive the future development of high-performance, compact, and reliable power electronic systems