🥼Organic Chemistry Unit 28 – Biomolecules – Nucleic Acids

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Nucleic acids are essential biomolecules that store and transmit genetic information in living organisms
• Composed of nucleotide monomers linked together by phosphodiester bonds to form long polynucleotide chains
• Two main types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• DNA stores genetic information and is responsible for the transmission of hereditary traits
• RNA plays a crucial role in the expression of genetic information, acting as a messenger between DNA and proteins
• Nucleotides consist of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), and a phosphate group
• Nitrogenous bases in DNA include adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T), while RNA contains uracil (U) instead of thymine

Structure of Nucleic Acids

• DNA is a double-stranded helix with two antiparallel polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs
  • Adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C) in DNA
• RNA is typically single-stranded and can form complex secondary structures through intramolecular base pairing
• The sugar-phosphate backbone of nucleic acids is formed by the alternating sugar and phosphate groups, with the nitrogenous bases attached to the sugars
• The 5' end of a nucleic acid strand has a free phosphate group, while the 3' end has a free hydroxyl group
• The directionality of nucleic acid strands is important for replication, transcription, and translation processes
• The double helix structure of DNA is stabilized by base stacking interactions and the hydrophobic effect
• The diameter of the DNA double helix is approximately 2 nanometers, with a complete turn every 3.4 nanometers (10 base pairs)

Types of Nucleic Acids

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the primary genetic material in most organisms and is responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information
  • DNA is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the nucleoid region of prokaryotic cells
• RNA (ribonucleic acid) is involved in various cellular processes, including gene expression, regulation, and catalysis
• Three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
  • mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis
  • tRNA acts as an adapter molecule, bringing specific amino acids to the ribosome during translation
  • rRNA is a structural and catalytic component of ribosomes, facilitating protein synthesis
• Other types of RNA include small nuclear RNA (snRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), and microRNA (miRNA), which play roles in gene regulation and RNA processing

Nucleotides and Nucleosides

• Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
• Nucleosides are composed of a nitrogenous base and a pentose sugar without the phosphate group
• The nitrogenous bases in nucleotides are divided into two categories: purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil)
• The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA, it is ribose (contains an additional hydroxyl group at the 2' position)
• Nucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds between the 5' phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 3' hydroxyl group of the adjacent nucleotide
• Nucleotides also serve as energy carriers (ATP and GTP) and cofactors in various biochemical reactions (NAD+, NADP+, and coenzyme A)

DNA Replication and RNA Transcription

• DNA replication is the process by which a cell duplicates its genetic material before cell division, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an identical copy of the genome
  • Replication is semiconservative, meaning that each newly synthesized DNA strand is paired with one of the original template strands
• The replication process involves the unwinding of the double helix by DNA helicases, followed by the synthesis of new DNA strands by DNA polymerases
  • DNA polymerases require a primer (a short RNA or DNA sequence) to initiate replication and can only synthesize DNA in the 5' to 3' direction
• RNA transcription is the process by which genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA strand
  • Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerases, which synthesize RNA from a DNA template
• The main steps of transcription include initiation (binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter region), elongation (synthesis of the RNA strand), and termination (release of the RNA polymerase and the newly synthesized RNA)
• Post-transcriptional modifications, such as splicing and the addition of a 5' cap and a 3' poly(A) tail, occur in eukaryotic cells to produce mature mRNA

Functions in Living Organisms

• Nucleic acids play a central role in the storage, transmission, and expression of genetic information in living organisms
• DNA serves as the repository of genetic information, encoding the instructions for the synthesis of proteins and the regulation of cellular processes
• RNA acts as a messenger, conveying genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes for protein synthesis (mRNA)
• RNA also plays crucial roles in the translation process, with tRNA serving as adapter molecules and rRNA forming the structural and catalytic core of ribosomes
• Non-coding RNAs, such as snRNA, siRNA, and miRNA, are involved in various cellular processes, including gene regulation, RNA splicing, and chromatin remodeling
• Nucleic acids also participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, with ribozymes (catalytic RNA molecules) and deoxyribozymes (catalytic DNA molecules) exhibiting enzymatic activity
• The genetic information stored in DNA is the basis for heredity, allowing the transmission of traits from parents to offspring

Lab Techniques and Applications

• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a widely used technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences, enabling the detection and analysis of small amounts of genetic material
  • PCR involves the use of primers, DNA polymerase, and thermal cycling to exponentially amplify a target DNA sequence
• DNA sequencing techniques, such as Sanger sequencing and next-generation sequencing (NGS), allow the determination of the precise order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule
  • DNA sequencing has revolutionized fields such as genomics, personalized medicine, and evolutionary biology
• Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate nucleic acid fragments based on their size and charge, allowing for the analysis and purification of DNA and RNA samples
• Recombinant DNA technology involves the manipulation and insertion of DNA sequences into host organisms, enabling the production of recombinant proteins and the study of gene function
• RNA interference (RNAi) is a technique that utilizes small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to selectively silence gene expression, providing a powerful tool for studying gene function and developing therapeutic strategies
• Nucleic acid-based therapies, such as antisense oligonucleotides and gene therapy, hold promise for treating genetic disorders and various diseases by modulating gene expression or replacing defective genes

Connections to Other Biomolecules

• Nucleic acids are closely connected to proteins, as the genetic information stored in DNA is ultimately expressed through the synthesis of proteins
  • The genetic code, which is based on the sequence of nucleotides in DNA and RNA, determines the amino acid sequence of proteins
• The synthesis of proteins relies on the interplay between nucleic acids and other biomolecules, such as amino acids and enzymes
  • Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and are brought to the ribosomes by tRNA molecules during translation
• Nucleotides, the building blocks of nucleic acids, also serve as important cofactors and energy carriers in various biochemical reactions involving proteins and other biomolecules
  • ATP, a nucleotide, is the primary energy currency in living cells and is utilized by enzymes to drive numerous biochemical processes
• The regulation of gene expression involves the interaction of nucleic acids with proteins, such as transcription factors and chromatin-modifying enzymes
• Nucleic acids also interact with carbohydrates, such as in the formation of the glycosidic bond between the nitrogenous base and the pentose sugar in nucleosides
• Lipids, particularly in the form of phospholipids, play a role in the packaging and protection of nucleic acids, as seen in the lipid bilayers of cell membranes and the envelopes of some viruses