🥼Organic Chemistry Unit 23 – Carbonyl Condensation Reactions

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Carbonyl condensation reactions involve the combination of two carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) to form a new carbon-carbon bond
• Aldol condensation is a specific type of carbonyl condensation reaction that forms β-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones (aldol products)
• Enolates are key intermediates in carbonyl condensation reactions formed by deprotonation of an α-carbon adjacent to a carbonyl group
  • Enolates are stabilized by resonance and can act as nucleophiles
• Electrophilic carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones) react with enolates to form a new carbon-carbon bond
• Dehydration of aldol products can occur under certain conditions to form α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds
• Retro-aldol reaction is the reverse of an aldol condensation, breaking the carbon-carbon bond and regenerating the starting carbonyl compounds
• Crossed aldol condensation involves the reaction between two different carbonyl compounds, while self-aldol condensation occurs between two molecules of the same carbonyl compound

Types of Carbonyl Condensation Reactions

• Aldol condensation combines two aldehydes or ketones to form β-hydroxy carbonyl compounds (aldol products)
  • Can be catalyzed by acids or bases
• Claisen condensation is a variation of the aldol condensation that involves the reaction between an ester enolate and another ester or carbonyl compound
  • Results in the formation of β-keto esters or 1,3-diketones
• Knoevenagel condensation is a condensation reaction between an aldehyde or ketone and an active methylene compound (containing an acidic α-hydrogen) in the presence of a weak base catalyst
• Perkin reaction is a condensation between an aromatic aldehyde and an anhydride in the presence of a base to form α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids
• Benzoin condensation occurs between two aromatic aldehydes in the presence of a cyanide catalyst to form α-hydroxy ketones (benzoins)
• Darzens condensation is a reaction between an aldehyde or ketone and an α-halo ester to form α,β-epoxy esters (glycidic esters)
• Henry reaction (nitroaldol condensation) involves the condensation of a nitroalkane with an aldehyde or ketone to form β-nitro alcohols

Reaction Mechanisms

• General mechanism for base-catalyzed aldol condensation:
  1. Deprotonation of the α-carbon of one carbonyl compound to form an enolate
  2. Nucleophilic addition of the enolate to another carbonyl compound, forming a new carbon-carbon bond
  3. Protonation of the resulting alkoxide to form the aldol product
  4. Optional dehydration of the aldol product to form an α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compound
• Acid-catalyzed aldol condensation mechanism involves the formation of an enol intermediate instead of an enolate
  • Protonation of the carbonyl oxygen activates it for nucleophilic addition by the enol
• Claisen condensation mechanism is similar to the aldol condensation but involves the formation of an ester enolate
• Knoevenagel condensation mechanism involves the formation of an imine intermediate followed by dehydration to form the α,β-unsaturated product
• Benzoin condensation mechanism involves the formation of a cyanide anion catalyst that adds to one aldehyde, forming a nucleophilic acyl anion equivalent that then adds to another aldehyde
• Stereochemistry of the aldol product depends on the geometry of the enolate (E or Z) and the facial selectivity of the carbonyl electrophile (re or si face)

Important Reagents and Catalysts

• Strong bases such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sodium ethoxide (NaOEt) are commonly used to generate enolates in aldol condensations
• Weak bases like amines (piperidine, pyrrolidine) or ammonium salts (ammonium acetate) are used in Knoevenagel condensations
• Lewis acids (TiCl₄, SnCl₄, BF₃) can catalyze aldol condensations by activating the carbonyl electrophile and promoting enolate formation
• Proline and other chiral secondary amines are used as organocatalysts for asymmetric aldol condensations
  • These catalysts form chiral enamines with the donor carbonyl compound, inducing stereoselectivity
• Cyanide anions (NaCN or KCN) are used as catalysts in benzoin condensations
• Zinc and aluminum amalgams (Zn(Hg) or Al(Hg)) are used in the Reformatsky reaction, a variation of the aldol condensation using α-halo esters
• Silyl enol ethers are preformed, stable enolate equivalents that can be used in aldol-type reactions with good regio- and stereoselectivity

Stereochemistry Considerations

• Aldol condensations can generate up to two new stereocenters, depending on the substitution pattern of the reactants
• Relative stereochemistry of the aldol product is determined by the geometry of the enolate (E or Z) and the facial selectivity of the carbonyl electrophile (re or si face)
  • E enolates typically lead to anti aldol products, while Z enolates lead to syn aldol products
• Absolute stereochemistry can be controlled using chiral auxiliaries, chiral catalysts, or chiral enolates
  • Chiral auxiliaries are covalently bonded to the donor carbonyl compound, directing the facial selectivity of the enolate
  • Chiral catalysts (proline, cinchona alkaloids) form chiral enamines or iminium ions with the donor carbonyl, inducing facial selectivity
• Double stereodifferentiation occurs when both the enolate and electrophile are chiral, leading to a potential mismatch in facial selectivity
• Felkin-Anh and Cram-chelate models can be used to predict the stereochemical outcome of aldol reactions with chiral aldehydes
• Stereochemistry of the aldol product can be inverted through epimerization under basic or acidic conditions

Synthetic Applications

• Aldol condensations are widely used in the synthesis of complex molecules, including natural products and pharmaceuticals
  • Example: Robinson annulation, a double aldol condensation used to construct cyclic compounds (Wieland-Miescher ketone)
• Claisen condensations are useful for generating 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds, which are versatile synthetic intermediates
  • Example: Synthesis of β-keto esters for use in the acetoacetic ester synthesis of ketones
• Knoevenagel condensations are used to prepare α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, which are important in the synthesis of heterocycles and other conjugated systems
  • Example: Synthesis of cyanoacrylates for use as adhesives (Super Glue)
• Benzoin condensations are used to synthesize α-hydroxy ketones, which can be further transformed into other functional groups
  • Example: Synthesis of acyloins for use in the Stetter reaction, a umpolung addition of aldehydes to Michael acceptors
• Aldol reactions are key steps in the biosynthesis of many natural products, including sugars (glycolysis), fatty acids, and polyketides
  • Example: Biosynthesis of erythromycin, a polyketide antibiotic, involves multiple aldol condensations catalyzed by a polyketide synthase

Common Pitfalls and Troubleshooting

• Retro-aldol reactions can occur under basic conditions, leading to the reversibility of aldol condensations and reduced yields
  • Avoid using excessively strong bases or high temperatures to minimize retro-aldol reactions
• Self-condensation of the donor carbonyl compound can compete with the desired crossed aldol condensation
  • Use a large excess of the donor carbonyl or add it slowly to the reaction mixture to minimize self-condensation
• Dehydration of the aldol product can lead to mixtures of regioisomeric α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds
  • Control the reaction conditions (temperature, base strength, dehydrating agent) to favor the desired regioisomer
• Over-alkylation or multiple condensations can occur when using highly reactive or unhindered carbonyl compounds
  • Use a stoichiometric amount of base or a less reactive enolate (silyl enol ether) to prevent over-alkylation
• Epimerization of the aldol product can lead to a loss of stereochemical integrity
  • Minimize exposure to strong bases or acids, and carefully control the reaction conditions to avoid epimerization
• Enolate geometry (E/Z) can be difficult to control, leading to mixtures of syn and anti aldol products
  • Use specific enolate formation conditions (kinetic vs. thermodynamic) or preformed enolates (silyl enol ethers) to control enolate geometry

Practice Problems and Examples

1. Predict the product(s) of the following aldol condensation reaction:

   $\text{CH}_3\text{CHO} + \text{CH}_3\text{COCH}_3 \overset{\text{NaOH}}{\longrightarrow} ?$

   Answer

   4-hydroxy-2-butanone (major) and 3-buten-2-one (minor, after dehydration)

2. Draw the expected product of the Claisen condensation between ethyl acetate and methyl propionate.

   Answer

   Methyl 3-oxohexanoate

3. Propose a synthetic route to prepare cinnamic acid using a Knoevenagel condensation.

   Answer

   Benzaldehyde + malonic acid $\overset{\text{piperidine}}{\longrightarrow}$ cinnamic acid + CO₂ + H₂O

4. Explain the stereochemical outcome of the following aldol reaction using the Zimmerman-Traxler model:

   $(Z)$-enolate + benzaldehyde $\longrightarrow$ ?

   Answer

   The (Z)-enolate will lead to a syn aldol product via a chair-like transition state with the R group of the aldehyde in a pseudoequatorial position.

5. Design an asymmetric aldol reaction to prepare (R)-3-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanenitrile using a chiral auxiliary.

   Answer

   Use a chiral oxazolidinone auxiliary (Evans auxiliary) to control the enolate geometry and facial selectivity. Cleave the auxiliary after the aldol reaction to obtain the desired product.