10.2 Marine mineral and energy resources
3 min read•july 24, 2024
The ocean floor holds a treasure trove of mineral resources. From sulfides near hydrothermal vents to manganese nodules on abyssal plains, these deposits offer valuable metals like copper, zinc, and cobalt. Extraction methods vary, with some well-established and others still in development.
Marine resource development isn't without challenges. Environmental impacts range from disrupting marine life to potential . However, the ocean also offers renewable energy potential through offshore wind, wave, and . Balancing economic benefits with conservation efforts remains a key consideration in marine resource exploitation.
Marine Mineral Resources
Types of marine mineral resources
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- Seafloor massive sulfides form near hydrothermal vents extracted using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) contain valuable metals (copper, zinc, gold)
- Manganese nodules located on abyssal plains harvested using specialized rich in manganese, nickel, copper, and cobalt
- formed on seamounts and ridges extraction methods still in development valuable source of cobalt, nickel, and platinum
- concentrated by wave and current action extracted through or techniques contain minerals like gold, diamonds, and heavy metals
- Phosphorites found on continental shelves extracted through dredging or drilling used in fertilizer production
- Salt deposits obtained through solar evaporation of seawater essential for food preservation and chemical industry
- extracted from coastal areas and continental shelves through dredging or suction mining used in construction and beach nourishment
Environmental and Economic Considerations
Environmental impacts of offshore extraction
- disrupt marine mammal communication and navigation affecting migration patterns and feeding behaviors
- Drilling operations release drilling muds and cuttings causing on the seafloor smothering
- Oil spills have immediate and long-term effects on marine ecosystems impacting coastal communities and economies (Deepwater Horizon)
- potentially contaminates surrounding waters with hydrocarbons and heavy metals
- from offshore operations contribute to climate change exacerbating ocean acidification
- of platforms poses challenges in proper removal and disposal potentially leaving lasting environmental impacts
Potential of renewable marine energy
- offers large-scale energy production but faces challenges like visual impact, bird collisions, and underwater noise
- Wave energy provides consistent and predictable power source but struggles with device durability and impacts on coastal processes
- Tidal power generates highly predictable energy but limited by suitable locations and potential impacts on marine life (fish migration)
- (OTEC) utilizes temperature differences between surface and deep waters but faces high initial costs and potential impacts on ocean circulation
- harnesses energy from mixing fresh and saltwater but challenges include membrane technology development and environmental impacts
Factors in marine resource development
- Global demand for minerals and energy increases pressure to exploit marine resources driving exploration in deeper waters
- enable access to previously unreachable resources ( equipment, improved drilling techniques)
- International maritime laws like (UNCLOS) and (EEZs) regulate resource exploitation
- Geopolitical tensions arise from disputes over resource-rich areas (Arctic, South China Sea) leading to competing claims
- aim to balance economic development with conservation efforts impacting extraction methods and locations
- Investment and risk considerations include high costs of marine resource extraction and uncertain returns due to market fluctuations
- pressure alignment of resource exploitation with environmental protection influencing industry practices
- drives nations to reduce dependence on foreign energy sources encouraging domestic offshore exploration
- Economic diversification efforts lead coastal nations to expand marine-based economies including aquaculture and marine biotechnology
Key Terms to Review (25)
Benthic Communities: Benthic communities are groups of organisms that inhabit the seafloor, including the ocean floor and the bottom of lakes and rivers. These communities are composed of a diverse array of species, from tiny microorganisms to larger organisms like crabs and sea stars, all interacting with one another and their environment. They play a crucial role in nutrient cycling and energy transfer within aquatic ecosystems, often serving as a foundation for food webs and influencing overall ecosystem health.
Cobalt-rich crusts: Cobalt-rich crusts are sedimentary deposits found on the deep-sea floor, characterized by their high concentrations of cobalt, rare earth elements, and other valuable metals. These crusts form over millions of years on seamounts and other underwater features, providing a significant resource for various industries, particularly in the context of marine mineral and energy resources.
Decommissioning: Decommissioning refers to the process of safely closing down and dismantling facilities or structures that are no longer in use, particularly in the context of marine mineral and energy resources. This process is essential for mitigating environmental impacts, ensuring safety, and restoring ecosystems after the cessation of operations, such as offshore oil rigs or mining sites. Effective decommissioning involves careful planning and execution to minimize disturbances to marine habitats and manage waste properly.
Deep-sea mining: Deep-sea mining refers to the process of retrieving valuable minerals and resources from the ocean floor, typically at depths greater than 200 meters. This practice aims to extract resources like polymetallic nodules, seafloor massive sulfides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, which are critical for various industries. The impact of this mining on deep-sea ecosystems and hydrothermal vent communities is a growing concern due to potential disruptions and habitat loss.
Deep-sea mining equipment: Deep-sea mining equipment refers to specialized tools and machines designed for extracting minerals and resources from the ocean floor at depths typically beyond 200 meters. This equipment is crucial for accessing valuable resources like polymetallic nodules, hydrothermal vents, and seafloor massive sulfides, which can contain precious metals and rare earth elements. As the demand for marine minerals grows, advancements in technology are making deep-sea mining more feasible and efficient, while also raising concerns about environmental impacts and sustainability.
Dredging: Dredging is the process of removing sediment and debris from the bottom of bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. This technique is commonly used to deepen navigation channels, improve water quality, and extract valuable resources like minerals and energy sources from the seafloor.
Energy security: Energy security refers to the reliable availability of energy resources at an affordable price, ensuring that a nation can meet its energy needs without disruption. This concept is vital in understanding how countries strategize to maintain a stable and secure energy supply, particularly through the exploration and utilization of marine mineral and energy resources, which can offer both opportunities and challenges for sustainable energy development.
Environmental Regulations: Environmental regulations are laws and rules set by governments to protect the environment and human health from the impacts of industrial activities, resource extraction, and pollution. These regulations play a crucial role in managing the sustainable use of marine mineral and energy resources, ensuring that such activities do not lead to irreversible damage to marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
Exclusive Economic Zones: Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are maritime areas established under international law where a coastal state has special rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources, including mineral and energy resources, extending 200 nautical miles from its baseline. These zones grant countries the authority to manage and exploit resources like fish, oil, gas, and minerals, while also ensuring they have control over environmental impacts within these regions.
Greenhouse gas emissions: Greenhouse gas emissions are gases released into the atmosphere that trap heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate change. These emissions primarily come from human activities such as burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and agricultural practices. Understanding greenhouse gas emissions is crucial for addressing the impacts of climate change, particularly in relation to marine environments and resources.
Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction refers to the process of altering or eliminating a natural environment, causing a loss of biodiversity and impacting species that rely on those habitats. This phenomenon is primarily driven by human activities such as urban development, agriculture, pollution, and resource extraction, which disrupt ecosystems and lead to the decline or extinction of various marine and terrestrial species. Understanding this issue is crucial in addressing conservation efforts and sustainable practices across various sectors.
Ocean thermal energy conversion: Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a process that utilizes the temperature difference between warmer surface ocean water and colder deep ocean water to generate electricity. This renewable energy technology has the potential to provide a consistent and sustainable power source, tapping into the vast thermal energy stored in the oceans, which is critical for developing alternative energy resources.
Offshore wind power: Offshore wind power refers to the generation of electricity using wind turbines located in bodies of water, typically on the continental shelf. This method harnesses the stronger and more consistent winds found at sea compared to onshore sites, making it an increasingly popular and viable renewable energy source. Offshore wind power is significant for its potential to contribute to energy transition goals while minimizing land use conflicts and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Oil spills: Oil spills refer to the accidental or intentional release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, particularly marine areas, due to human activity. These incidents can have devastating effects on marine ecosystems, wildlife, and coastal communities, leading to long-term environmental and economic consequences. Understanding oil spills is crucial for implementing effective conservation strategies, managing marine resources responsibly, and addressing pollution challenges in our oceans.
Placer deposits: Placer deposits are accumulations of valuable minerals or metals that have been concentrated by the action of water, typically found in riverbeds or along shorelines. These deposits form as heavier minerals, like gold and gemstones, settle out of moving water, allowing them to be mined more easily compared to other sources. They play a crucial role in the extraction of marine resources, contributing to both economic interests and the study of sediment transport processes.
Produced water discharge: Produced water discharge refers to the wastewater that is generated during the extraction of oil and gas from underground reservoirs. This water often contains a mix of contaminants, including salts, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons, making its management crucial for environmental protection. Understanding produced water discharge is essential in addressing its impact on marine ecosystems and the regulation of offshore oil and gas operations.
Remote Operated Vehicles: Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) are unmanned, robotic submersibles controlled from a distance, typically from a ship or a land-based facility. They are designed to explore and perform tasks in deep-sea environments where human divers cannot operate safely or effectively. ROVs are crucial for the collection of marine mineral and energy resources, as they can navigate extreme depths and harsh conditions while conducting surveys and carrying out interventions on underwater infrastructure.
Salinity Gradient Power: Salinity gradient power refers to the energy that can be extracted from the difference in salt concentration between seawater and freshwater. This concept is crucial in harnessing renewable energy from oceanic sources, as it provides a potential means to generate electricity through processes like osmosis and salinity gradient technology. It represents a sustainable way to tap into marine resources, contributing to the quest for cleaner energy alternatives.
Sand and gravel: Sand and gravel are natural granular materials commonly found in marine environments, often used in construction and other industrial applications. These materials are critical components of sedimentary deposits that can accumulate in various coastal and marine settings, playing a significant role in the geologic and economic landscape associated with marine mineral and energy resources.
Seismic surveys: Seismic surveys are geophysical methods used to explore subsurface geological structures by sending seismic waves into the ground and analyzing their reflections. This technique is crucial for locating and assessing marine mineral and energy resources, including oil, gas, and minerals, as it provides detailed images of the geological formations beneath the ocean floor.
Suction Mining: Suction mining is a method used to extract marine minerals and resources from the ocean floor by using a powerful suction system to gather materials. This technique is particularly useful for harvesting valuable minerals such as sand, gravel, and precious metals from submerged deposits. Suction mining is often employed in coastal areas and can have significant implications for marine ecosystems and coastal management.
Sustainable Development Goals: Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 global objectives established by the United Nations to address pressing social, economic, and environmental challenges by 2030. They aim to promote prosperity while protecting the planet, ensuring that all people can enjoy peace and prosperity, with an emphasis on inclusivity and sustainability.
Technological Advancements: Technological advancements refer to the progress and innovation in tools, techniques, and processes that improve efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness in various fields. In the context of marine mineral and energy resources, these advancements play a crucial role in enhancing exploration, extraction, and management practices, ultimately leading to more sustainable utilization of ocean resources.
Tidal Power: Tidal power refers to the harnessing of energy generated by the movement of tides in oceans and seas, using various technologies to convert this kinetic and potential energy into electricity. This renewable energy source is driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, leading to regular and predictable tidal cycles that can be utilized for sustainable energy production.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an international treaty that establishes guidelines for the use and conservation of the world's oceans and marine resources. It defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in their use of ocean resources, which is vital for promoting sustainable practices, protecting biodiversity, regulating fisheries, and managing mineral and energy resources beneath the seabed.