6.2 WEP, WPA, and WPA2
11 min read•august 20, 2024
Wireless network security has evolved from to and , addressing vulnerabilities and improving encryption. This progression reflects the ongoing battle between security experts and hackers, as each protocol aims to provide stronger protection for wireless communications.
Understanding these protocols is crucial for network administrators and security professionals. WEP, WPA, and WPA2 each have unique features, strengths, and weaknesses that impact network security and user experience in different ways.
WEP overview
- WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is a security protocol for wireless networks introduced in 1999 as part of the standard
- Designed to provide confidentiality and integrity comparable to wired networks, but suffered from serious security flaws
- Uses the stream cipher for encryption and CRC-32 checksum for integrity checking
WEP encryption process
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- WEP uses a pre-shared key () of 40 or 104 bits, combined with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to form the RC4 key
- The plaintext data is XORed with the keystream generated by the RC4 algorithm to produce the ciphertext
- The IV is appended to the ciphertext and transmitted along with the data
- The receiver uses the same PSK and extracts the IV from the received data to decrypt the message
WEP authentication methods
- Open System Authentication: Any client can authenticate and associate with the access point without providing credentials
- Shared Key Authentication: A four-step challenge-response handshake using the pre-shared WEP key for authentication
- Client sends an authentication request to the access point
- Access point responds with a clear-text challenge
- Client encrypts the challenge with the WEP key and sends it back
- Access point decrypts the response and compares it with the original challenge to authenticate the client
Weaknesses of WEP
- Short IV length (24 bits) leads to IV reuse and key stream recovery attacks (FMS attack, KoreK attack)
- Weak RC4 key scheduling algorithm allows related key attacks (Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir attack)
- CRC-32 checksum is linear and does not provide adequate integrity protection against malicious modification
- Shared Key Authentication reveals information about the keystream, enabling dictionary attacks
- Lack of key management and updating mechanisms, leading to long-term use of the same key
WPA overview
- WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) is a security protocol introduced in 2003 as an interim solution to address the weaknesses of WEP
- Designed to be a software upgrade for existing WEP-based hardware, providing improved security and compatibility
- Offers two modes of operation: WPA-Personal (PSK) and WPA-Enterprise (802.1X/)
WPA vs WEP
- WPA addresses the key management issue by introducing the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol ()
- TKIP uses a 128-bit per-packet key, dynamically generated for each data packet, to prevent key reuse attacks
- Implements a Message Integrity Check (MIC) called Michael to protect against data modification attacks
- Provides improved authentication methods using 802.1X/EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol) for enterprise networks
TKIP encryption in WPA
- TKIP uses the same RC4 cipher as WEP but with enhancements to address its weaknesses
- Combines the base key (PSK or ) with the sender's MAC address and a 48-bit IV to generate a unique per-packet key
- The IV is used as a sequence counter to prevent replay attacks
- The per-packet key is mixed with the IV and used to encrypt the data using RC4
- The encrypted data, along with the IV and key ID, is transmitted to the receiver
WPA authentication process
- WPA-Personal (PSK): Uses a pre-shared key (PSK) for authentication, similar to WEP but with a longer key (256 bits)
- WPA-Enterprise (802.1X/EAP): Uses a for authentication and key management
- Client sends an EAP-Start message to the access point
- Access point responds with an EAP-Request/Identity message
- Client sends an EAP-Response/Identity message containing its identity
- Access point forwards the identity to the RADIUS server, which initiates the chosen EAP method (e.g., EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS, PEAP)
- After successful authentication, the RADIUS server sends the session key to the access point
- Access point and client derive the Pairwise Master Key (PMK) from the session key and use it for TKIP encryption
WPA enterprise mode
- WPA-Enterprise uses 802.1X/EAP for authentication and key management, providing a more secure and scalable solution for business networks
- Supports various EAP methods, such as EAP-TLS (Transport Layer Security), EAP-TTLS (Tunneled TLS), and PEAP (Protected EAP)
- Requires a RADIUS server to handle authentication and key distribution
- Each user has a unique set of credentials (username/password or digital certificate) for authentication
- Enables centralized management of user accounts and access control policies
WPA personal mode
- WPA-Personal, also known as WPA-PSK (Pre-Shared Key), is designed for home and small office networks
- Uses a pre-shared key (PSK) for authentication, which is a passphrase of 8 to 63 ASCII characters or a 64-digit hexadecimal string
- The PSK is used to derive the Pairwise Master Key (PMK) for TKIP encryption
- Provides a simpler setup compared to WPA-Enterprise, as it does not require a RADIUS server
- Suitable for environments where setting up a RADIUS server is not feasible or necessary
Limitations of WPA
- TKIP is still based on the RC4 cipher, which has known weaknesses and is vulnerable to attacks (e.g., Beck-Tews attack)
- The Michael MIC is vulnerable to a specific key recovery attack, requiring a 60-second countermeasure to change the keys
- WPA-PSK is susceptible to dictionary attacks if weak passphrases are used
- Lacks perfect forward secrecy, meaning that compromising the PSK or PMK can allow decryption of previously captured traffic
- Designed as a temporary solution to address while maintaining compatibility with older hardware
WPA2 overview
- WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2) is the successor to WPA, introduced in 2004 as part of the IEEE 802.11i standard
- Provides stronger encryption and authentication compared to WPA, addressing its limitations and vulnerabilities
- Mandatory for all Wi-Fi CERTIFIED devices since 2006, ensuring widespread adoption and compatibility
WPA2 vs WPA
- WPA2 introduces the Counter Mode Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol () as a replacement for TKIP
- CCMP uses the Advanced Encryption Standard () cipher in counter mode (AES-CTR) for encryption and CBC-MAC for integrity checking
- Provides stronger security compared to TKIP, with improved resistance to attacks and better performance
- Offers both WPA2-Personal (PSK) and WPA2-Enterprise (802.1X/EAP) modes, similar to WPA
- Addresses the vulnerabilities and limitations of WPA, such as the Beck-Tews attack and the Michael MIC weakness
CCMP encryption in WPA2
- CCMP uses AES-CTR for encryption and AES-CBC-MAC for integrity checking, providing a more secure alternative to TKIP
- The Pairwise Transient Key (PTK) is derived from the PMK (PSK or MSK) and the nonces exchanged during the
- The PTK is divided into three parts: the Key Confirmation Key (), the Key (), and the Temporal Key ()
- The TK is used for AES-CTR encryption, while the KCK and KEK are used for key confirmation and encryption during the 4-way handshake
- Each data packet is encrypted using AES-CTR with a unique , preventing key reuse and ensuring data confidentiality
- The encrypted data, along with the packet number and MAC header, is used to calculate the AES-CBC-MAC for integrity checking
AES algorithm in WPA2
- The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric block cipher used in WPA2 for encryption and integrity checking
- AES operates on 128-bit blocks and supports key sizes of 128, 192, and 256 bits (WPA2 uses 128-bit keys)
- The AES algorithm consists of several rounds of substitution, permutation, and mixing operations, based on the key size (10, 12, or 14 rounds)
- Each round involves four steps: SubBytes (byte substitution), ShiftRows (row transposition), MixColumns (column mixing), and AddRoundKey (round key addition)
- The final round omits the MixColumns step, and the decryption process uses the inverse operations in reverse order
- AES provides strong security, efficient implementation, and resistance to known attacks, making it suitable for use in WPA2
WPA2 authentication improvements
- WPA2-Enterprise uses 802.1X/EAP for authentication, similar to WPA, but with support for additional EAP methods and enhanced security features
- Introduces key caching and pre-authentication to reduce the delay associated with 802.1X/EAP authentication during roaming between access points
- Supports (PMF) to prevent spoofing and tampering of management frames, such as deauthentication and disassociation attacks
- Allows the use of AES-based EAP methods, such as EAP-PWD and EAP-EKE, for stronger authentication and key exchange
- Provides backward compatibility with WPA and WEP, enabling a smooth transition to WPA2 in mixed environments
WPA2 enterprise mode enhancements
- WPA2-Enterprise introduces several enhancements to improve security and performance in business networks
- Supports Fast Basic Service Set (BSS) Transition (FT) to enable fast and secure roaming between access points without the need for full 802.1X/EAP authentication
- Allows the use of Protected Management Frames (PMF) to protect against management frame attacks and enhance network stability
- Provides support for 802.11r (Fast Roaming) and 802.11k (Neighbor Report) to optimize roaming performance and client transition between access points
- Enables the use of 802.11w (Protected Management Frames) to protect against Denial-of-Service (DoS) attacks targeting management frames
- Supports 802.1X/EAP with RADIUS server redundancy and load balancing for improved reliability and scalability
WPA2 personal mode enhancements
- WPA2-Personal (PSK) offers several enhancements over WPA-PSK to improve security and usability in home and small office networks
- Increases the PSK length to 64 hexadecimal digits (256 bits) to provide stronger protection against brute-force attacks
- Supports the use of a passphrase of 8 to 63 ASCII characters, which is then converted to a 256-bit PSK using the PBKDF2 key derivation function
- Implements a 4-way handshake for mutual authentication and key exchange between the client and the access point
- Provides backward compatibility with WPA-PSK, allowing the coexistence of WPA and WPA2 clients on the same network
- Offers an optional Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) feature for easy and secure configuration of WPA2-PSK devices
WPA2 security considerations
- While WPA2 provides strong security compared to WEP and WPA, it is not immune to vulnerabilities and attacks
- The KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) vulnerability, discovered in 2017, allows an attacker to replay and decrypt data packets by manipulating the 4-way handshake
- WPA2-PSK is still susceptible to dictionary attacks if weak passphrases are used, emphasizing the importance of using strong and unique passphrases
- Rogue access points can be set up to trick clients into connecting and capturing their credentials or data, requiring proper client-side validation and authentication
- Insider threats and physical access to the network can compromise the security of WPA2, necessitating additional measures such as network segmentation and access control
- Regular updates and patches for Wi-Fi devices are essential to address known vulnerabilities and maintain the security of WPA2 networks
Cracking WEP, WPA, and WPA2
- Cracking wireless security protocols involves exploiting vulnerabilities and weaknesses to obtain the encryption keys and gain unauthorized access to the network
- The difficulty and feasibility of cracking depend on the security protocol, its configuration, and the resources available to the attacker
- Cracking wireless networks is often performed for security testing, research, or malicious purposes, and should only be done with proper authorization and legal compliance
Tools for cracking wireless security
- : A popular suite of tools for assessing Wi-Fi network security, including packet capture, injection, and cracking capabilities
- : A network protocol analyzer that can be used to capture and analyze wireless traffic, aiding in the identification of vulnerabilities and extraction of key material
- Reaver: A tool designed to exploit the Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) vulnerability and recover the WPA/WPA2 passphrase
- Hashcat: A powerful password recovery tool that can be used to crack captured WPA/WPA2 handshakes using GPU acceleration
- Fern Wi-Fi Cracker: A wireless security auditing and attack tool that automates the process of cracking WEP, WPA, and WPA2 networks
- Wifite: An automated wireless attack tool that can crack WEP, WPA, and WPA2 networks by executing multiple attacks in sequence
Cracking WEP keys
- WEP cracking involves capturing a sufficient number of encrypted packets (typically around 50,000 to 200,000) to recover the keystream and derive the WEP key
- The FMS (Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir) attack exploits weaknesses in the RC4 key scheduling algorithm to recover the key by analyzing packets with weak IVs
- The KoreK attack improves upon the FMS attack by using statistical methods to reduce the number of packets required for key recovery
- The PTW (Pyshkin, Tews, and Weinmann) attack further optimizes the key recovery process by exploiting additional weaknesses in the RC4 cipher
- Tools like Aircrack-ng automate the process of capturing, filtering, and cracking WEP keys, making it relatively easy to crack WEP networks with sufficient traffic
Exploiting WPA vulnerabilities
- WPA cracking primarily focuses on the WPA-PSK mode, as WPA-Enterprise relies on the security of the 802.1X/EAP authentication method used
- Dictionary attacks can be used to crack WPA-PSK passphrases by capturing the 4-way handshake and using a wordlist to guess the passphrase
- The Beck-Tews attack exploits a vulnerability in the TKIP encryption to inject and decrypt short packets, allowing an attacker to recover the keystream and forge packets
- The Hole196 vulnerability in the WPA2 protocol allows an authenticated client to inject and decrypt traffic of other clients on the same network
- The KRACK (Key Reinstallation Attack) vulnerability affects the 4-way handshake in WPA2, enabling an attacker to replay, decrypt, and forge packets by manipulating the handshake messages
- Exploiting WPA vulnerabilities often requires capturing a valid 4-way handshake and using tools like Aircrack-ng or Hashcat to perform dictionary or brute-force attacks
Attacking WPA2 networks
- WPA2 cracking primarily targets the WPA2-PSK mode, as WPA2-Enterprise security depends on the chosen 802.1X/EAP authentication method
- Dictionary and brute-force attacks can be used to crack WPA2-PSK passphrases by capturing the 4-way handshake and guessing the passphrase
- The PMKID (Pairwise Master Key Identifier) attack allows an attacker to recover the PMK without capturing a full 4-way handshake, reducing the time and effort required for cracking
- The , discovered in 2019, affects the WPA3 standard and can be used to downgrade WPA3 connections to WPA2 or perform side-channel attacks to recover the passphrase
- Social engineering techniques, such as phishing or rogue access points, can be used to trick users into revealing their WPA2 credentials
- Attacking WPA2 networks requires a combination of tools, techniques, and patience, as well as a strong understanding of the underlying security protocols and their weaknesses
Protecting against wireless attacks
- Use WPA2 or WPA3 with strong passphrases (at least 12 characters long, combining uppercase, lowercase, numbers, and special characters) to prevent dictionary and brute-force attacks
- Implement WPA2-Enterprise or WPA3-Enterprise with secure 802.1X/EAP authentication methods (e.g., EAP-TLS, EAP-TTLS, PEAP) for better access control and user management
- Enable Protected Management Frames (PMF) to prevent spoofing and tampering of management frames, such as deauthentication and disassociation attacks
- Keep Wi-Fi devices and firmware up-to-date with the latest security patches and updates to address known vulnerabilities and explo
Key Terms to Review (31)
4-way handshake: The 4-way handshake is a cryptographic protocol used in wireless networking to establish a secure connection between a client and an access point. This process is essential for the proper authentication and key management in Wi-Fi security protocols like WPA and WPA2, ensuring that both parties can communicate securely and that the encryption keys are shared without being intercepted.
AES: AES, or Advanced Encryption Standard, is a symmetric-key encryption algorithm widely used to secure data. It operates on fixed block sizes and uses key lengths of 128, 192, or 256 bits, making it highly efficient and secure. AES plays a crucial role in various encryption protocols and standards, ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of data in different contexts.
Aircrack-ng: Aircrack-ng is a suite of tools designed for assessing the security of Wi-Fi networks, particularly focusing on WEP and WPA/WPA2 encryption. This powerful toolkit allows users to capture packets, crack passwords, and perform various attacks on wireless networks. Its functionality is crucial for understanding wireless security vulnerabilities, as it directly relates to the authentication methods used in these networks and can expose potential weaknesses that can be exploited.
CCMP: CCMP, or Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol, is a security protocol used in wireless networks to provide data confidentiality and integrity. It is part of the WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2) standard and uses AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) for encryption. CCMP enhances security compared to earlier protocols like WEP and TKIP by offering stronger encryption and robust message integrity checks.
Data integrity: Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data throughout its lifecycle. It ensures that data is maintained in a correct state and remains unaltered during storage, transmission, and processing. Maintaining data integrity is crucial for preventing unauthorized access and ensuring that information remains trustworthy, which is especially important in secure communications, private networks, and wireless security protocols.
Dragonblood vulnerability: The dragonblood vulnerability is a security flaw found in the WPA3 protocol that affects the way authentication occurs during the handshake process between a client and an access point. This vulnerability allows attackers to exploit weaknesses in the transition from WPA2 to WPA3, enabling them to perform password guessing attacks more efficiently and bypass the security measures meant to protect user data during Wi-Fi connections.
EAP: EAP, or Extensible Authentication Protocol, is an authentication framework commonly used in network security to facilitate various authentication methods for devices connecting to a network. It allows for flexibility in choosing different authentication techniques, making it suitable for diverse environments, including those requiring enterprise-level security. This protocol is often used in conjunction with Wi-Fi security standards like WPA and WPA2 to enhance secure communications over wireless networks.
Encryption key: An encryption key is a string of bits used by an encryption algorithm to transform plaintext into ciphertext and vice versa. It plays a critical role in securing wireless communication, as it determines how the data is encoded and protected from unauthorized access. The strength of the encryption key directly impacts the security of wireless protocols, which are essential for maintaining privacy and integrity in network communications.
Fast bss transition: Fast BSS Transition (FT) is a feature in wireless networking that allows for rapid handover between access points without the need for extensive re-authentication. This capability is particularly important in environments where users are mobile and require seamless connectivity, enhancing user experience and performance in WPA2 and WPA3 security protocols.
IEEE 802.11: IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards that governs wireless local area networks (WLANs), providing the protocols for implementing wireless communication in various devices. It encompasses different technologies and security measures for wireless networking, including encryption, authentication, and performance metrics. The standards ensure that wireless devices can connect seamlessly and securely over a shared radio frequency medium.
Kck: kck, or Key Confirmation Key, is a crucial component in the wireless security protocols WEP, WPA, and WPA2. It serves as a key that helps in confirming the integrity of the session keys used for encrypting data during transmission, ensuring that the communication remains secure and private. The kck plays a vital role in preventing unauthorized access and ensuring that the data being sent over the network has not been tampered with.
Kek: Kek is a term associated with cryptographic key management, specifically referring to the Key Encryption Key. It is used to encrypt and secure other keys, ensuring that sensitive information remains protected during transmission and storage. The use of kek is crucial in various encryption protocols to maintain the integrity and confidentiality of data, especially in wireless communication systems.
Mac address filtering: MAC address filtering is a network security measure that allows or denies devices access to a network based on their unique Media Access Control (MAC) address. This practice is used to enhance security by creating a list of authorized devices, ensuring that only those devices can connect to the network. While effective in preventing unauthorized access, it can be circumvented, so it's often combined with other security protocols for better protection.
Man-in-the-middle attack: A man-in-the-middle attack is a cybersecurity breach where a malicious actor secretly intercepts and relays messages between two parties who believe they are communicating directly with each other. This type of attack exploits vulnerabilities in communication protocols, allowing the attacker to capture sensitive information or manipulate the conversation without either party's knowledge.
Nonce: A nonce is a random or pseudo-random number that is used only once in cryptographic communication to ensure security and prevent replay attacks. Nonces are essential in various encryption protocols, serving as unique identifiers for sessions or messages, helping to maintain the integrity and confidentiality of data during transmission.
Packet sniffing: Packet sniffing is the process of intercepting and logging traffic that passes over a network. This technique allows individuals or tools to capture and analyze data packets, providing insights into the communication occurring within a network. Understanding how packet sniffing works is crucial in the context of network security, as it highlights potential vulnerabilities in protocols, especially in wireless communications and encryption methods.
Pmk: The Pairwise Master Key (PMK) is a cryptographic key used in wireless networking protocols, specifically in WPA and WPA2 security standards. The PMK is derived from the Pre-Shared Key (PSK) and is essential for establishing secure communications between a client and an access point. It plays a critical role in the key management process, enabling both authentication and encryption of data during transmission.
Protected management frames: Protected management frames are a security enhancement in wireless networks designed to secure certain management frames against eavesdropping and spoofing attacks. By ensuring the integrity and confidentiality of these frames, they help prevent unauthorized access and control of the network, playing a critical role in improving the security of protocols like WPA2.
PSK: PSK stands for Pre-Shared Key, a method used in wireless networks to provide secure access by requiring users to enter a shared password before gaining connectivity. This key is crucial for the encryption process in wireless security protocols, enabling devices to communicate securely over networks such as WPA and WPA2. By using a PSK, networks can protect against unauthorized access and ensure data confidentiality and integrity.
Radius Server: A Radius server is a networking protocol that provides centralized Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) management for users who connect and use a network service. It plays a critical role in securing wireless networks, particularly those using WEP, WPA, and WPA2 by managing user credentials and access controls effectively.
Rc4: RC4 is a stream cipher designed by Ron Rivest in 1987, widely recognized for its simplicity and speed in encrypting data. It operates on a variable-length key and generates a pseudorandom keystream that is combined with plaintext to produce ciphertext, making it a popular choice for securing data in protocols like WEP, WPA, and WPA2.
SSID Hiding: SSID hiding is a security practice that involves not broadcasting the Service Set Identifier (SSID), which is the name of a wireless network, to prevent unauthorized users from easily discovering it. This method aims to enhance wireless security by making the network less visible to potential attackers. While SSID hiding can deter casual users from connecting, it does not provide complete security since determined attackers can still find hidden networks using specialized tools.
Tk: In the context of wireless security protocols, 'tk' refers to the Temporal Key, a unique key used to encrypt and decrypt data during a specific session in a wireless network. It is crucial for maintaining the confidentiality and integrity of communications between devices on the network, particularly in protocols like WEP, WPA, and WPA2, where secure key management is essential to prevent unauthorized access and eavesdropping.
TKIP: TKIP, or Temporal Key Integrity Protocol, is a security protocol designed to provide data encryption and integrity for wireless networks. It was introduced as part of the WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) standard to address the vulnerabilities of WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) by dynamically generating encryption keys for each data packet, which enhances security. TKIP also includes mechanisms to ensure that keys are not reused, making it significantly more secure than its predecessor while still maintaining compatibility with existing hardware.
WEP: Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is a security protocol designed to provide a wireless local area network (WLAN) with a level of security and privacy comparable to what is usually expected of a wired LAN. Although it was introduced as part of the 802.11 standards, WEP has been largely phased out due to significant vulnerabilities that compromise its effectiveness in securing wireless communications.
WEP Vulnerabilities: WEP vulnerabilities refer to the security weaknesses found in Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), a security protocol designed to provide a wireless local area network with a level of security comparable to that of a wired network. These vulnerabilities include flaws in key management, weak encryption methods, and susceptibility to attacks, which significantly undermine the effectiveness of WEP as a protective measure for wireless communications.
Wi-Fi Alliance: The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global organization that promotes and certifies Wi-Fi technology and its products. This organization plays a crucial role in establishing standards for wireless networking technologies, ensuring interoperability among devices, and enhancing the overall security of wireless communications, particularly through the development of security protocols like WEP, WPA, and WPA2.
Wireshark: Wireshark is a widely-used network protocol analyzer that allows users to capture and inspect data packets traveling over a network in real-time. It helps in diagnosing network issues, analyzing security problems, and understanding protocol behavior, making it a crucial tool in various areas such as SSL/TLS analysis, dynamic malware analysis, and network forensics.
WPA: WPA, or Wi-Fi Protected Access, is a security protocol designed to provide stronger data protection and access control for wireless networks compared to its predecessor, WEP. It was introduced in response to serious vulnerabilities found in WEP, aiming to improve the overall security of wireless communications through advanced encryption methods and improved authentication mechanisms. WPA represents a significant step forward in the evolution of wireless security standards, including enhancements that are continued in WPA2.
Wpa handshake attack: A WPA handshake attack is a method used to exploit the WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) security protocol by capturing the four-way handshake that occurs when a device connects to a wireless network. This handshake contains important information that can be used to crack the encryption key, allowing attackers to gain unauthorized access to the network. The attack relies on the fact that once the handshake is captured, it can be analyzed offline, often leading to successful breaches even without physically being close to the target network.
WPA2: WPA2, or Wi-Fi Protected Access 2, is a security protocol developed to secure wireless networks by providing stronger data encryption and authentication methods compared to its predecessors. It is built on the IEEE 802.11i standard and employs the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) for encryption, ensuring better protection against unauthorized access and various types of attacks.