The of 1890 marked a tragic end to the , highlighting the brutal culmination of U.S. expansion policies and . This event encapsulated decades of , forced relocations, and cultural suppression that defined U.S.-Native relations.
The massacre occurred amid rising tensions fueled by the movement and U.S. military presence on reservations. It resulted in the deaths of 150-300 Lakota, mostly women and children, leaving a lasting impact on Native communities and shaping future indigenous rights movements.
Background of Wounded Knee
Wounded Knee Massacre marked a tragic culmination of decades-long conflicts between Native Americans and the U.S. government
Incident occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota
Represented a pivotal moment in Native American history, highlighting the ongoing struggle for sovereignty and cultural preservation
Lakota Ghost Dance movement
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Religious revival spreading among Native American tribes in the late 19th century
Promised spiritual renewal and the return of traditional ways of life
Incorporated elements of traditional Native beliefs and Christian teachings
Practiced through ritualistic circle dances and songs
Viewed with suspicion and fear by U.S. authorities who misinterpreted its peaceful nature
Tensions with U.S. government
Broken treaties and forced relocation onto reservations fueled Native American distrust
Diminishing buffalo herds threatened Lakota way of life and economic independence
Implementation of assimilation policies aimed at erasing Native cultures
Increased military presence on reservations heightened anxiety among Native communities
Growing resistance to government control and desire for self-determination among tribes
Arrival of 7th Cavalry
Deployed to Pine Ridge Reservation to quell perceived unrest related to Ghost Dance
Commanded by , carried historical baggage from
Arrived with a force of 500 soldiers, heavily armed and on high alert
Intercepted 's band of en route to Pine Ridge Agency
Escorted the Lakota group to Wounded Knee Creek, establishing a tense encampment
Key figures
Chief Big Foot
Lakota leader of Miniconjou band, also known as Spotted Elk
Sought peaceful resolution and protection for his people during tumultuous times
Led his group towards Pine Ridge Agency seeking refuge with Chief Red Cloud
Suffered from pneumonia during the journey, weakening his ability to mediate
Killed during the massacre, his frozen body later photographed in a symbolic image
Colonel James W. Forsyth
Commander of the Regiment during the Wounded Knee incident
Tasked with disarming Big Foot's band and escorting them to a military prison
Made critical decisions that escalated tensions during the disarmament process
Faced criticism and a military inquiry for his handling of the situation
Later exonerated by the Army, but his actions remained controversial
Black Coyote incident
Lakota man identified as the initial trigger for the outbreak of violence
Reportedly deaf and did not understand orders to surrender his rifle
Struggled with soldiers attempting to take his weapon, leading to its discharge
Gunshot sparked widespread panic and confusion among both Lakota and soldiers
Debate continues over the exact circumstances and responsibility for this pivotal moment
Events of the massacre
Disarmament attempt
7th Cavalry surrounded Lakota camp on morning of December 29, 1890
Soldiers demanded surrender of all weapons from Big Foot's band
Search of tipis yielded only a few weapons, increasing soldiers' suspicion
Lakota men gathered in council area while women and children remained in camp
Tensions escalated as soldiers grew impatient with the slow disarmament process
Outbreak of violence
Scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle led to its discharge, igniting chaos
Soldiers opened fire indiscriminately into the Lakota crowd
Lakota warriors fought back with concealed weapons and hand-to-hand combat
Hotchkiss guns on nearby hill unleashed devastating firepower on the camp
Fighting spread rapidly, engulfing the entire area in violence
Civilian casualties
Women and children caught in crossfire as they fled the camp
Many killed by artillery fire as they sought shelter in a nearby ravine
Soldiers pursued fleeing Lakota for miles, killing many who tried to escape
Reports of wounded being executed, including women and children
Freezing temperatures compounded the suffering of survivors and wounded
Aftermath and consequences
Death toll and injuries
Estimates vary, but approximately 150-300 Lakota killed, including women and children
At least 25 U.S. soldiers died, many possibly from friendly fire in the chaos
Dozens of Lakota wounded, many left to die in the bitter cold
Survivors faced harsh winter conditions with little food or shelter
Long-term physical and psychological trauma impacted both Lakota and soldiers
Military honors controversy
20 Medals of Honor awarded to 7th Cavalry soldiers for actions at Wounded Knee
Sparked debate over the appropriateness of honoring participants in a massacre
Native American groups have long campaigned for rescinding these medals
Controversy highlights differing interpretations of the event's nature
Ongoing discussions about how to address this aspect of military history
Impact on Lakota people
Devastated Lakota population and morale, marking end of armed resistance
Accelerated loss of traditional culture and way of life
Deepened distrust and resentment towards U.S. government
Led to increased poverty and dependence on
Became a rallying point for future generations of Native American activists
Historical interpretations
U.S. government perspective
Initially portrayed as a necessary military action against hostile Indians
Official reports downplayed civilian casualties and emphasized soldier heroism
Justified as part of broader policy to subdue Native American resistance
Gradually shifted towards acknowledging the event as a regrettable tragedy
Modern government statements express remorse without full admission of culpability
Native American accounts
Emphasize the peaceful intentions of Big Foot's band seeking protection
Describe indiscriminate killing of unarmed men, women, and children
Highlight broken promises and betrayal by U.S. government and military
Preserve oral histories passed down through generations
Stress the long-term impact on Lakota culture and community
Modern scholarly analysis
Examines Wounded Knee within broader context of U.S.-Native American relations
Critiques earlier accounts for bias and inaccuracies in both military and Native sources
Utilizes archaeological evidence and newly discovered documents to reconstruct events
Explores psychological factors contributing to the escalation of violence
Considers Wounded Knee as a case study in colonialism and cultural conflict
Cultural significance
Symbolism in Native resistance
Wounded Knee became a powerful symbol of Native American oppression
Inspired future generations of activists in the fight for indigenous rights
Referenced in protests and political actions ( occupation in 1973)
Represents resilience and survival of Native cultures despite historical trauma
Used to advocate for recognition of past injustices and calls for reconciliation
Artistic and literary depictions
Inspired numerous books, poems, and songs across various genres
Notable works include Dee Brown's "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee"
Visual artists have created paintings, sculptures, and installations commemorating the event
Native American artists use Wounded Knee imagery to explore themes of identity and history
Documentaries and films have brought the story to wider audiences, shaping public perception
Wounded Knee in popular culture
Referenced in music lyrics across multiple genres (folk, rock, hip-hop)
Featured in television shows and movies dealing with Native American themes
Used as a shorthand for historical injustices against indigenous peoples
Influences naming of organizations and events related to Native rights
Contributes to ongoing discussions about representation of Native history in media
Legacy and remembrance
Memorials and commemorations
Wounded Knee National Historic Landmark established in 1965
Annual ceremonies held at the site to honor victims and survivors
Controversial monument erected in 1903, seen by some as offensive
Efforts to create more culturally appropriate memorials and educational centers
Debate over repatriation of artifacts and remains from the massacre site
Continued activism
Wounded Knee inspires modern Native American rights movements
Used to advocate for land rights, cultural preservation, and sovereignty
Informs discussions on issues like mascots, environmental protection, and education
Shapes Native American political engagement and representation
Influences international indigenous rights movements and solidarity efforts
Reconciliation efforts
Formal apologies from some government officials and religious organizations
Initiatives to improve education about Wounded Knee and Native American history
Cross-cultural dialogue programs between Native and non-Native communities
Calls for federal recognition of the event as a massacre rather than a battle
Ongoing challenges in addressing historical trauma and building trust
Historical context
Indian Wars timeline
Wounded Knee considered the last major armed conflict of the Indian Wars
Followed decades of warfare between Native tribes and U.S. forces (1850s-1890s)
Notable conflicts included Little Bighorn (1876) and (1877)
Represented shift from large-scale battles to smaller, more localized conflicts
Marked transition to new era of Native American-U.S. relations focused on reservations
U.S. expansion policies
ideology drove westward expansion and land acquisition
Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged settlement of Native territories
Treaties often used to legitimize land cessions, frequently broken or ignored
Military campaigns aimed at forcibly relocating tribes to reservations
Assimilation policies sought to eradicate Native cultures and languages
Native American reservation system
Established to confine Native populations to designated areas
Dramatically reduced land base and access to traditional resources
Imposed unfamiliar agricultural practices and economic systems
Facilitated government control over Native education and religious practices
Created long-term dependencies and social challenges within Native communities
Key Terms to Review (20)
7th Cavalry: The 7th Cavalry is a United States Army regiment known for its involvement in several significant conflicts, particularly during the Indian Wars of the late 19th century. Its most infamous moment came during the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, where it played a central role in the violent suppression of the Lakota Sioux people, marking a tragic end to the armed conflicts between Native Americans and U.S. forces.
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights organization founded in 1968 that seeks to address issues of sovereignty, treaty rights, and cultural preservation for Native Americans. It emerged in response to systemic injustices and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples, aiming to unite tribes and raise awareness of their struggles against oppression and cultural assimilation.
Black Coyote Incident: The Black Coyote Incident refers to a tragic event during the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890, where an Indian man named Black Coyote was killed after a misunderstanding occurred when U.S. soldiers attempted to disarm the Lakota Sioux. This incident escalated tensions and contributed to the chaotic violence that ensued, leading to the deaths of many Native Americans, including women and children, as the soldiers opened fire on the group.
Broken treaties: Broken treaties refer to agreements made between the U.S. government and Native American tribes that were not honored or upheld by the government. These violations often resulted in the loss of land, resources, and rights for Indigenous peoples, leading to significant social and economic challenges. Throughout history, these broken agreements have contributed to deep mistrust and ongoing conflicts between Native American communities and federal authorities.
Chief Big Foot: Chief Big Foot was a Lakota Sioux leader known for his role in the events leading up to the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890. He was recognized for his efforts to maintain peace between Native Americans and U.S. government forces during a period of intense conflict and distrust, especially following the Ghost Dance movement, which aimed to restore traditional Native American ways of life.
Colonel James W. Forsyth: Colonel James W. Forsyth was a United States Army officer who played a significant role in the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890. His leadership and decisions during this tragic event led to the deaths of many Lakota Sioux, marking a turning point in U.S. government policies toward Native Americans and a reflection of the broader tensions between settlers and Indigenous populations.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms of another group, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This concept has played a significant role in the history of various societies, particularly in the interactions between Indigenous peoples and European settlers, where it often resulted in profound changes to social structures, traditions, and ways of life.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This legislation significantly altered the land ownership system for Native Americans and sought to eradicate tribal communal living, promoting individual land ownership as a path to integration into mainstream American culture.
Disarmament Attempt: A disarmament attempt refers to efforts made to reduce or eliminate weapons, especially in the context of military conflicts. In the aftermath of violent events, such as the Wounded Knee Massacre, these attempts aimed to control or disband armed groups and reduce tensions between Native American tribes and the U.S. government, often resulting in significant political and social consequences.
Ghost Dance: The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century that aimed to restore traditional ways of life and bring about a renewal of their culture, ultimately seeking to end the suffering caused by colonization. It emerged as a response to oppression, promoting hope for a future where Native Americans could live in harmony with their ancestors and regain control over their lands.
Indian Wars: The Indian Wars were a series of conflicts between European settlers and Indigenous peoples in North America, primarily during the 19th century. These wars were driven by the expansion of settlers into Native lands, leading to violent confrontations over territory and resources. The consequences of these conflicts were profound, resulting in significant loss of life, displacement of Native communities, and the systematic erosion of Indigenous cultures and sovereignty.
Land dispossession: Land dispossession refers to the process through which Indigenous peoples lose their rights to their ancestral lands, often due to colonial expansion, government policies, and economic interests. This term encapsulates the broader theme of Indigenous displacement, cultural erasure, and the struggle for land rights, which has been a persistent issue throughout history.
Little Bighorn: The Battle of Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant confrontation between the U.S. Army and Native American forces, particularly the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne tribes. This battle is often referred to as Custer's Last Stand, as it ended with the defeat of General George Armstrong Custer and his troops, highlighting the intense conflict between Native Americans and U.S. expansionist policies.
Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continent was both justified and inevitable. This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and a perceived divine right to spread democracy and capitalism, deeply impacting Native American communities and shaping U.S. policy and actions towards them.
Miniconjou Lakota: The Miniconjou Lakota are a sub-group of the Lakota Sioux people, known for their rich cultural heritage and historical significance in the Great Plains. They played a pivotal role in the resistance against U.S. government policies during the 19th century, particularly during events like the Wounded Knee Massacre, which marked a tragic chapter in Native American history and highlighted the struggles of Indigenous peoples.
Native American Resistance: Native American resistance refers to the various forms of opposition and struggle that Indigenous peoples in North America engaged in against European colonization and later U.S. expansion. This resistance took many forms, including armed conflict, diplomatic negotiations, and cultural preservation efforts, as Indigenous communities sought to maintain their land, sovereignty, and way of life amid increasing pressure from settlers and government policies.
Nez Perce War: The Nez Perce War was a conflict between the Nez Perce tribe and the United States government that took place in 1877, primarily driven by the U.S. government's attempts to force the Nez Perce onto a reservation in Idaho. This war is emblematic of the broader struggles of Native American tribes during the era of expansionism and reflects themes of resistance against encroachment, which can be connected to the concept of Manifest Destiny, the tragic events at Wounded Knee, and various resistance movements that emerged as Indigenous peoples fought to preserve their lands and cultures.
Reservation system: The reservation system refers to the policy implemented by the United States government in the 19th century that designated specific areas of land for Native American tribes, often forcing them to relocate from their ancestral homelands. This system was a significant part of U.S. policy towards Indigenous peoples and is closely tied to land treaties, military conflicts, and efforts to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions about their own affairs without interference from outside authorities. This concept is deeply rooted in the historical and legal frameworks surrounding Native American communities, influencing their social structures, interactions with colonial powers, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies against Native Americans and highlights the tensions between Indigenous peoples and the federal government during a period marked by conflict and resistance.