🏹Native American History Unit 4 – Westward Expansion and Native American Conflicts

Key Events and Timeline

• Louisiana Purchase (1803) doubled the size of the United States, opening up vast territories for westward expansion
• Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-1806) explored and mapped the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, establishing relations with Native American tribes along the way
• Indian Removal Act (1830) authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River
  • Trail of Tears (1838-1839) resulted in the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation, leading to thousands of deaths during the arduous journey
• California Gold Rush (1848-1855) attracted a massive influx of settlers and prospectors to the West Coast, leading to rapid population growth and increased pressure on Native American lands
• Homestead Act (1862) encouraged westward migration by offering free land to settlers who agreed to live on and improve the land for a minimum of five years
• Transcontinental Railroad completed (1869) connecting the East and West Coasts, facilitating rapid transportation and further encouraging westward expansion
• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) marked the end of the Indian Wars and the subjugation of Native American tribes, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children

Motivations for Westward Expansion

• Manifest Destiny the belief that it was the divine right and destiny of the United States to expand across the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean
  • Fueled by a sense of cultural and racial superiority, justifying the displacement of Native American tribes
• Economic opportunities such as the California Gold Rush and the promise of fertile farmland attracted settlers and entrepreneurs to the West
• Desire for increased trade and commerce with Asia via Pacific ports drove interest in securing western territories
• Population growth and immigration in the eastern United States created a need for new land and resources
• Political and military interests in securing strategic locations, such as San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Northwest, to protect against foreign powers
• Religious and utopian movements, like the Mormons' migration to Utah, sought to establish new communities free from persecution

Native American Tribes and Territories

• Great Plains tribes included the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Comanche, who relied on the buffalo for sustenance and cultural practices
  • Nomadic lifestyle adapted to the vast grasslands and prairies of the central United States
• Southwest tribes such as the Navajo, Apache, and Pueblo peoples inhabited the arid regions of present-day Arizona and New Mexico
  • Developed complex irrigation systems and agricultural practices suited to the desert environment
• Pacific Northwest tribes, including the Nez Perce, Yakama, and Chinook, relied on salmon fishing and trade networks along the Columbia River
• Southeast tribes, such as the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Seminole, had well-established agricultural societies and political structures prior to forced removal
• Many tribes had long-standing trade relationships and alliances with one another, as well as conflicts over resources and territories
• European contact and the introduction of horses in the 16th century significantly impacted Native American cultures and power dynamics

Government Policies and Treaties

• Treaty-making process used by the U.S. government to negotiate land cessions and establish reservations for Native American tribes
  • Treaties often involved coercion, deception, and broken promises by the U.S. government
• Indian Removal Act (1830) authorized the President to negotiate removal treaties with Native American tribes in the Southeast, leading to forced relocation and the Trail of Tears
• Indian Appropriations Act (1851) established the reservation system, confining Native American tribes to specific areas and limiting their access to traditional lands and resources
• Dawes Act (1887) aimed to assimilate Native Americans into white society by breaking up tribal lands into individual allotments and encouraging adoption of European-American farming practices
  • Led to significant loss of tribal land holdings and erosion of traditional cultural practices
• Reservation system created a state of forced dependency and poverty for many Native American communities, as they were cut off from traditional means of subsistence and economic activities
• Boarding school system, established in the late 19th century, aimed to "civilize" Native American children by removing them from their families and communities and suppressing their language and cultural practices

Conflicts and Battles

• Black Hawk War (1832) conflict between the Sauk and Fox tribes and U.S. forces in present-day Illinois and Wisconsin, resulting in the forced removal of the tribes to Iowa
• Sand Creek Massacre (1864) U.S. Army attacked a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho village in Colorado Territory, killing over 150 Native Americans, mostly women and children
• Red Cloud's War (1866-1868) Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne alliance, led by Chief Red Cloud, fought against U.S. military presence in the Powder River Country of present-day Wyoming and Montana
  • Resulted in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which guaranteed the Sioux exclusive rights to the Black Hills and hunting grounds in the Powder River Country
• Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876) Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, defeated the U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer
• Nez Perce War (1877) Chief Joseph led the Nez Perce tribe in a 1,170-mile fighting retreat from Oregon to Montana, attempting to reach safety in Canada before being forced to surrender
• Ghost Dance Movement (1890) spiritual movement that spread among Native American tribes, promising the return of ancestral lands and the restoration of traditional ways of life
  • U.S. government's fear of the movement's potential to unite tribes in resistance led to the Wounded Knee Massacre

Impact on Native American Cultures

• Forced removal and relocation disrupted traditional ways of life, social structures, and cultural practices
  • Separation from ancestral lands and sacred sites led to spiritual and cultural loss
• Population decline due to disease, warfare, and starvation resulting from confinement on reservations and loss of traditional food sources
• Suppression of Native American languages and cultural practices through the boarding school system and assimilation policies
  • Intergenerational trauma and loss of cultural identity resulting from forced assimilation
• Disruption of traditional gender roles and family structures due to the loss of traditional economic activities and the imposition of European-American gender norms
• Erosion of tribal sovereignty and political autonomy as a result of U.S. government policies and the reservation system
• Adaptation and resilience of Native American communities in the face of adversity, maintaining cultural traditions and identities despite oppression

Legacy and Long-Term Consequences

• Ongoing struggles for tribal sovereignty, land rights, and cultural preservation
  • Efforts to reclaim ancestral lands, protect sacred sites, and assert treaty rights
• Persistent socioeconomic disparities between Native American communities and the general U.S. population, including higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and health issues
• Environmental degradation of Native American lands due to resource extraction, pollution, and climate change
  • Impacts on traditional subsistence practices and cultural connections to the land
• Revitalization of Native American languages and cultural practices through community-led initiatives and education programs
• Growing recognition of historical injustices and efforts towards reconciliation, such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) and the establishment of Indigenous Peoples' Day
• Ongoing debates over the representation and portrayal of Native American histories and cultures in education, media, and public discourse
• Contributions of Native American artists, writers, and activists to contemporary American culture and social justice movements

Important Figures and Leaders

• Tecumseh Shawnee leader who formed a pan-tribal confederacy to resist American expansion in the early 19th century
  • Fought alongside the British in the War of 1812 before being killed in battle
• Sequoyah Cherokee scholar who developed the Cherokee syllabary, a written form of the Cherokee language, in the early 19th century
• Sitting Bull Hunkpapa Lakota chief and spiritual leader who played a key role in the resistance against U.S. military incursions and the preservation of Lakota culture
  • Participated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and later traveled with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show
• Geronimo Apache leader who led a small band of warriors in a prolonged resistance against Mexican and American forces in the late 19th century
  • Became a symbol of Native American resistance and resilience
• Chief Joseph Nez Perce leader who led his people in a fighting retreat from Oregon to Montana in 1877, seeking to avoid forced relocation to a reservation
  • Known for his eloquent speeches and advocacy for his people's rights
• Crazy Horse Oglala Lakota war leader who played a significant role in the Lakota resistance against U.S. military forces, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn
  • Revered for his bravery, military prowess, and commitment to preserving Lakota culture and independence
• Red Cloud Oglala Lakota chief who led a successful campaign against U.S. military presence in the Powder River Country, resulting in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868
• Sarah Winnemucca Northern Paiute educator, interpreter, and activist who worked to improve conditions for her people and foster understanding between Native Americans and white settlers in the late 19th century