20.2 Neuroimaging and Motor Control Research
7 min read•july 30, 2024
Neuroimaging techniques have revolutionized our understanding of motor control and learning. By visualizing brain activity during movement, researchers can identify key regions involved and develop new theories about how we learn and control motor skills.
These advances have major implications for and rehabilitation. From uncovering the neural basis of expertise to informing new treatments for motor disorders, neuroimaging insights are shaping how we approach movement science and therapy.
Neuroimaging in Motor Control Research
Role of Neuroimaging Techniques
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- Neuroimaging techniques allow researchers to visualize and measure brain activity during motor tasks providing insights into the neural mechanisms underlying motor control and learning
- Neuroimaging studies have identified key brain regions involved in motor control such as the , , , and
- Neuroimaging research has contributed to the development of models and theories of motor control such as the internal models theory and the role of the cerebellum in error-based learning
- Advances in neuroimaging technology such as higher spatial and temporal resolution have enabled more precise mapping of brain activity during motor tasks and the study of complex motor behaviors (reaching and grasping)
- Neuroimaging techniques have been used to investigate the neural correlates of motor skill acquisition (learning a new dance routine), motor adaptation (adjusting to a new tool), and motor recovery after injury or disease ()
Advances in Neuroimaging Technology
- Improved spatial resolution allows for more precise localization of brain activity during motor tasks down to the level of specific cortical layers and subcortical nuclei
- Higher temporal resolution enables the study of rapid changes in brain activity related to motor planning, execution, and feedback processing on the order of milliseconds
- Multimodal neuroimaging approaches that combine different techniques (fMRI and EEG) provide complementary information about the spatial and temporal aspects of motor control in the brain
- Real-time fMRI and neurofeedback allow participants to self-regulate their brain activity during motor tasks opening new avenues for motor learning and rehabilitation
- Advances in data analysis methods such as machine learning and network analysis enable the extraction of more complex patterns of brain activity related to motor control and learning
fMRI vs EEG vs TMS for Motor Control
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
- fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal reflecting neural activity with high spatial resolution but relatively low temporal resolution
- fMRI is well-suited for localizing brain regions involved in motor tasks such as identifying the specific areas activated during hand movements or gait
- fMRI can be used to study the functional connectivity between different motor-related brain regions and how these networks change with learning or disease
- Limitations of fMRI include the need for participants to remain still during scanning, the indirect nature of the BOLD signal, and the difficulty in distinguishing excitatory and inhibitory neural activity
Electroencephalography (EEG)
- EEG records electrical activity from the scalp providing high temporal resolution but limited spatial resolution
- EEG is useful for studying the timing and oscillatory dynamics of motor-related brain activity such as the preparation and execution of movements
- EEG can detect changes in cortical excitability and inhibition related to motor learning and plasticity using techniques like event-related potentials (ERPs) and time-frequency analysis
- Limitations of EEG include the need for careful artifact rejection, the difficulty in localizing deep brain sources, and the low signal-to-noise ratio compared to other neuroimaging methods
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
- TMS uses magnetic pulses to stimulate specific brain regions allowing researchers to investigate the causal role of cortical areas in motor control and learning
- TMS can be used to temporarily disrupt or enhance the function of motor-related brain regions (primary motor cortex) to study their contributions to motor behavior
- Paired-pulse TMS paradigms can assess the excitability and connectivity of motor cortical circuits providing insights into the mechanisms of motor plasticity and learning
- Limitations of TMS include the limited depth of stimulation, the potential for non-specific effects, and the variability in individual responses to stimulation
Multimodal Neuroimaging Approaches
- Combining fMRI with EEG or TMS can provide complementary information about the spatial and temporal aspects of motor control in the brain
- EEG-fMRI integration allows for the localization of EEG sources using the high spatial resolution of fMRI improving the interpretation of EEG findings
- TMS-fMRI can be used to investigate the effects of TMS on brain activity and connectivity providing insights into the causal interactions between motor-related regions
- Multimodal approaches can help to overcome the limitations of individual neuroimaging techniques and provide a more comprehensive understanding of motor control and learning in the brain
Interpreting Neuroimaging Findings for Motor Control
Brain Regions Involved in Motor Control
- Neuroimaging studies have shown that the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor area, and premotor cortex are consistently activated during the execution of motor tasks
- The basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in motor learning and adaptation with the basal ganglia contributing to the selection and initiation of movements and the cerebellum playing a role in error-based learning and coordination
- The parietal cortex is important for sensorimotor integration and the planning of goal-directed actions based on visual and proprioceptive information
- The prefrontal cortex is involved in the cognitive control of motor behavior such as response inhibition, task switching, and decision-making
Neural Correlates of Motor Learning
- Motor skill acquisition is associated with changes in brain activity such as increased activation in the primary motor cortex and decreased activation in the prefrontal cortex as a skill becomes more automated
- The basal ganglia and cerebellum show learning-related changes in activity that are associated with the acquisition of new motor skills (juggling) and the adaptation to novel environments (force fields)
- Motor learning is accompanied by changes in the functional connectivity between motor-related brain regions reflecting the reorganization of neural networks with practice
- Neuroimaging studies have revealed that and engage similar brain networks as motor execution supporting the use of mental practice in motor learning
Implications for Motor Disorders and Rehabilitation
- Findings from neuroimaging research have implications for understanding motor impairments in neurological disorders such as and stroke
- In Parkinson's disease, neuroimaging studies have shown abnormalities in the activation and connectivity of the basal ganglia and motor cortical regions related to the motor symptoms of the disease
- Stroke patients often show altered patterns of brain activity during motor tasks with compensatory activation of non-motor regions and decreased connectivity between motor-related areas
- Neuroimaging findings can inform the development of targeted rehabilitation interventions that aim to restore or compensate for motor deficits by modulating brain activity and promoting neural plasticity
- Neuroimaging can be used to monitor the effects of rehabilitation on brain function and structure providing biomarkers for treatment response and prognosis
Implications of Neuroimaging for Motor Skill Acquisition
Internal Models and Sensorimotor Learning
- Neuroimaging studies have provided evidence for the existence of internal models in the brain which are neural representations of the body and the environment used for motor control and learning
- The cerebellum is thought to play a key role in the formation and updating of internal models based on sensory prediction errors
- fMRI studies have shown that the cerebellum is activated during tasks that involve the adaptation to novel dynamics (robotic manipulandum) or visuomotor transformations (rotated visual feedback)
- The parietal cortex and the premotor cortex are also involved in the formation and use of internal models for motor planning and control
Reinforcement Learning and Motor Decision-Making
- The findings of neuroimaging research support the role of the basal ganglia in reinforcement learning and the selection of appropriate motor actions based on reward and punishment feedback
- fMRI studies have shown that the activity in the striatum and the ventral tegmental area is modulated by reward prediction errors during motor learning tasks
- The prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex are involved in the cognitive aspects of motor decision-making such as the evaluation of action outcomes and the monitoring of performance errors
- Neuroimaging findings have implications for understanding the neural basis of motor skill acquisition in real-world settings where rewards and punishments are often delayed and probabilistic
Neural Efficiency and Expertise
- The changes in brain activity observed during motor skill acquisition such as increased efficiency and decreased cognitive control have implications for designing effective training protocols and optimizing motor performance
- fMRI studies have shown that expert performers (musicians, athletes) show lower levels of activity in motor-related brain regions compared to novices suggesting a more efficient use of neural resources
- The neural correlates of motor expertise as revealed by neuroimaging studies provide insights into the brain mechanisms underlying exceptional motor skills and have implications for talent identification and development
- Neuroimaging findings can inform the design of training programs that aim to promote neural efficiency and automaticity in motor skill acquisition
Neuromodulation and Motor Enhancement
- Neuroimaging findings have contributed to the development of neuromodulation techniques such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive TMS (rTMS) which can be used to enhance motor learning and performance by modulating brain activity in specific regions
- tDCS studies have shown that anodal stimulation of the primary motor cortex can improve motor skill acquisition and retention in healthy individuals and stroke patients
- rTMS can be used to modulate the excitability and plasticity of motor cortical circuits with potential applications in the treatment of motor disorders and the enhancement of motor function
- The combination of neuroimaging and neuromodulation techniques can provide a powerful approach to understanding the causal role of specific brain regions and networks in motor skill acquisition and to developing targeted interventions for motor rehabilitation and enhancement
Key Terms to Review (19)
Action Observation: Action observation is the process of observing and analyzing the actions of others, particularly in the context of motor learning and control. This concept highlights how watching someone perform a task can enhance an individual's ability to learn and execute that same task. It underscores the role of visual information in motor skill acquisition and demonstrates how the brain processes observed movements similarly to those executed personally.
Basal ganglia: The basal ganglia is a group of nuclei in the brain that play a crucial role in coordinating movement, motor control, and a variety of cognitive functions. These structures work together to facilitate voluntary movement and help regulate motor activities by filtering out unnecessary movements, thus contributing to smooth and controlled motions.
Basal ganglia circuitry: Basal ganglia circuitry refers to a complex network of neural connections within the basal ganglia, a group of nuclei in the brain that play a crucial role in motor control, movement regulation, and learning. This circuitry is involved in the planning and execution of movement, influencing motor activity by integrating input from various cortical and subcortical areas, thus facilitating smooth and coordinated actions.
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is a critical part of the brain located at the back, responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and motor learning. It plays an essential role in integrating sensory information from the visual, proprioceptive, and vestibular systems to fine-tune motor control and ensure smooth, precise movements.
Closed-loop control: Closed-loop control is a system of motor control that uses feedback to regulate and adjust movements in real-time. This mechanism relies on sensory information from the environment to provide continuous updates, enabling corrections and refinements during the execution of a task, which is crucial for skillful performance across various activities.
Corticospinal tract: The corticospinal tract is a major neural pathway that transmits motor signals from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord, playing a crucial role in voluntary motor control. It is essential for executing precise and coordinated movements by carrying information from higher brain centers down to motor neurons that directly innervate skeletal muscles. This pathway connects to various structures involved in motor function, influencing how movements are initiated and regulated.
Kandel et al.: Kandel et al. refers to the groundbreaking work of Eric Kandel and his colleagues, who significantly advanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. Their research has revealed how synaptic plasticity, particularly through processes such as long-term potentiation (LTP), plays a critical role in motor control and the ability to learn new motor skills.
Krakauer: Krakauer refers to the research and contributions made by Dr. Richard Krakauer in the field of motor control, particularly in understanding how the brain processes and controls movement. His work often focuses on the neural mechanisms behind motor learning and adaptation, utilizing advanced neuroimaging techniques to explore the relationship between brain activity and motor function.
Motor imagery: Motor imagery is the mental process of simulating or imagining performing a movement without any physical execution. This technique is often used by athletes and individuals learning motor skills to enhance performance, improve skill acquisition, and facilitate the consolidation and retention of learned movements. By mentally rehearsing actions, individuals can strengthen neural pathways associated with those movements, which is closely linked to the study of brain activity and its relationship to motor control.
Motor skill acquisition: Motor skill acquisition refers to the process of learning and refining movements to achieve desired performance outcomes through practice and experience. This concept highlights how individuals adapt their motor skills over time, influenced by various factors including neural changes, cognitive processes, and the environment in which the skills are practiced.
Movement accuracy: Movement accuracy refers to the precision with which a person can execute a movement in relation to a target or goal. It involves the ability to achieve specific spatial and temporal outcomes while minimizing errors, which is crucial for success in various sports and activities. This concept is linked to the effectiveness of different motor control strategies and how our brains process movements, impacting athletic performance and skill development.
Neuroplasticity: Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This process is essential for motor learning, as it allows the nervous system to adapt to new experiences, recover from injuries, and refine motor skills.
Open-loop control: Open-loop control refers to a type of motor control system where the output is generated without using feedback from the environment. In this model, once a command is initiated, the system executes the action without adjusting based on the outcome, making it ideal for actions that require quick responses without the need for continuous adjustment.
Parkinson's Disease: Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects movement, causing tremors, rigidity, and bradykinesia due to the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain. This condition also impacts neurotransmitter function and various brain structures involved in motor control, ultimately influencing rehabilitation strategies and age-related motor changes.
PET scans: PET scans, or Positron Emission Tomography scans, are advanced imaging techniques that allow researchers to visualize metabolic processes in the body. By using radioactive tracers, PET scans can provide real-time images of brain activity and help identify areas involved in various motor functions and controls. This technology is particularly significant for understanding how the brain coordinates movement and processes information related to motor control.
Primary Motor Cortex: The primary motor cortex is the region of the brain responsible for the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements. Located in the frontal lobe, it plays a crucial role in motor control and is intimately connected to various neural processes, including neuroplasticity, postural control, and the aging brain.
Reaction Time: Reaction time is the interval between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of a response. This concept is crucial in understanding how individuals process information and execute motor actions, as it reflects cognitive processing speed and motor response efficiency. Factors such as practice, age, and cognitive load can significantly influence reaction time, making it a key area of study in motor learning and control.
Stroke rehabilitation: Stroke rehabilitation is a comprehensive therapeutic process designed to help individuals recover from the physical, cognitive, and emotional challenges that arise following a stroke. This process involves various therapies, such as physical, occupational, and speech therapy, aimed at restoring function and improving the quality of life for stroke survivors. Understanding how neuroimaging can inform treatment strategies is crucial for developing effective rehabilitation protocols and understanding motor control after a stroke.
Supplementary motor area: The supplementary motor area (SMA) is a region of the brain located in the medial part of the frontal lobe, playing a crucial role in planning and coordinating movement sequences. It is involved in the initiation of voluntary movements and contributes to motor learning by integrating sensory information and motor commands. The SMA works closely with other motor areas and is essential for the execution of complex movements, especially those that require coordination across multiple muscle groups.