2.3 The Chicago School and the birth of the skyscraper
3 min read•august 5, 2024
The revolutionized architecture in the late 19th century. Architects like and embraced new technologies to create taller, more functional buildings. Their innovative designs laid the groundwork for modern skyscrapers.
and improved elevators made taller buildings possible. The Chicago School emphasized and large windows, rejecting historical styles. Their "" philosophy shaped American architecture for decades to come.
Architects of the Chicago School
Pioneering Architects
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Escuela de Chicago: Louis Sullivan- Henry Hobson Richardson - Casiopea View original
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Top images from around the web for Pioneering Architects
Escuela de Chicago: Louis Sullivan- Henry Hobson Richardson - Casiopea View original
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Daniel Burnham’s Flatiron Building, NYC | Flickr - Photo Sharing! View original
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Escuela de Chicago: Louis Sullivan- Henry Hobson Richardson - Casiopea View original
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- Louis Sullivan developed a distinctly American style of architecture emphasized the building's purpose through its design and ornamentation (form follows function)
- Daniel Burnham played a key role in rebuilding Chicago after the Great Fire of 1871 and designed many notable buildings, including the Flatiron Building in New York City
- is known as the "Father of the American Skyscraper" designed the first skyscraper with a complete steel skeleton, the
Influential Designs and Philosophies
- These architects embraced new technologies and materials, such as steel-frame construction and large plate glass windows, to create taller, more functional buildings
- They rejected historical styles in favor of a more modern, streamlined aesthetic that emphasized the vertical lines of the building
- Their designs often featured inspired by nature, such as Sullivan's intricate terra cotta facades with organic motifs
Innovations in Skyscraper Design
Structural Advancements
- Steel-frame construction allowed for taller, more stable buildings by using a grid of steel beams and columns to support the weight of the building, rather than relying on thick masonry walls
- Curtain walls, non-load-bearing exterior walls that are hung on the building's frame, allowed for larger windows and more flexible interior layouts
- , such as encasing steel beams in concrete or terra cotta tiles, helped prevent the spread of fire in these taller buildings
Technological Improvements
- , including the invention of the safety elevator by Elisha Otis in 1853, made it practical to build taller buildings by providing efficient vertical transportation
- Advances in and systems improved the comfort and functionality of these tall buildings
- The use of , watertight chambers used in bridge and building foundations, allowed for the construction of deeper foundations to support the weight of taller buildings
Aesthetic Considerations
- The Chicago School architects embraced the vertical emphasis of the skyscraper, using vertical lines and elongated windows to draw the eye upward
- They often used , known as the , to create a sense of balance and rhythm in the facade
- Ornamental details, such as cornices and spandrels, were used to break up the vertical lines and add visual interest to the building
Key Buildings
Home Insurance Building (1885)
- Designed by William Le Baron Jenney, considered the world's first skyscraper
- Featured a steel skeleton frame, allowing it to reach a height of 10 stories (138 feet)
- The building's exterior was clad in brick and terra cotta, with large windows providing ample natural light
Wainwright Building (1891)
- Designed by Louis Sullivan and Dankmar Adler in St. Louis, Missouri
- Considered one of the first skyscrapers to fully embrace the principles of form follows function
- Features a three-part vertical composition, with a base, shaft, and capital, that emphasizes the building's height
Guaranty Building (1896)
- Also known as the Prudential Building, located in Buffalo, New York
- Designed by Louis Sullivan and is considered a masterpiece of his ornamental style
- Features intricate terra cotta ornament inspired by nature, with each floor having a unique design
Architectural Elements
Form Follows Function
- A principle championed by Louis Sullivan, stating that a building's design should primarily reflect its purpose or function
- This concept rejected the use of historical styles and ornamentation for purely decorative purposes
- Instead, architects focused on creating efficient, functional spaces that were well-suited to their intended use
Chicago Window
- A three-part window design consisting of a large, fixed central pane flanked by two smaller, operable windows
- This design maximized natural light and ventilation while maintaining the vertical emphasis of the building
- The Chicago window became a defining feature of the Chicago School style and influenced the design of skyscrapers around the world
Key Terms to Review (20)
Chicago School: The Chicago School refers to a group of architects and thinkers in late 19th and early 20th century Chicago who played a pivotal role in the development of modern architecture, particularly through the innovation of skyscrapers. This movement was characterized by its emphasis on functionalism, the use of new materials like steel and reinforced concrete, and an overall rejection of historical architectural styles in favor of new forms that responded to urban needs. This laid the groundwork for the Prairie School and shaped modern architectural principles.
Chicago Window: The Chicago Window is a distinct architectural feature characterized by a large central fixed pane flanked by two smaller movable sash windows, allowing for both light and ventilation. This design emerged during the late 19th century and became iconic in the context of the Chicago School, which played a pivotal role in the development of skyscrapers and modern architecture.
Curtain wall: A curtain wall is a non-structural exterior wall system that is typically composed of lightweight materials, allowing for large expanses of glass and minimal framing. This design approach enhances the aesthetic appeal of buildings while providing flexibility in architectural design, especially significant during the rise of the skyscraper in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The curtain wall system supports its own weight and can be attached to the building's structural framework, allowing for greater innovation in facade treatments and overall building expression.
Daniel Burnham: Daniel Burnham was a prominent American architect and urban planner, best known for his role in the development of the Chicago School of architecture and the design of iconic skyscrapers. His vision for modern cities was characterized by a focus on creating functional and aesthetically pleasing urban spaces, which significantly influenced the birth of the skyscraper movement in Chicago and beyond.
Electric lighting: Electric lighting refers to the use of electric power to produce artificial light, which revolutionized interior spaces and architecture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This advancement allowed for greater flexibility in building design, significantly affecting how spaces were utilized and perceived. Electric lighting not only enhanced visibility but also played a critical role in urban development, contributing to longer active hours in cities and transforming both commercial and residential buildings.
Elevator technology: Elevator technology refers to the systems and mechanisms that enable the vertical transportation of people and goods within buildings. This technology played a crucial role in shaping modern architecture, allowing for the construction of taller structures by efficiently moving occupants between floors. Innovations such as safety brakes, electric motors, and automated controls significantly enhanced the functionality and reliability of elevators, making high-rise buildings feasible and practical.
Fireproofing techniques: Fireproofing techniques are methods used to protect buildings and their materials from the damaging effects of fire. These techniques were crucial in the development of skyscrapers, particularly in the Chicago School, where safety and structural integrity became vital as buildings grew taller and more complex. By using materials and treatments that resist fire, architects could enhance the durability of their designs while also ensuring the safety of occupants.
Form Follows Function: Form follows function is a design principle that emphasizes that the shape of a building or object should primarily relate to its intended purpose or function. This idea became a cornerstone of Modern Architecture, highlighting the belief that aesthetic beauty should derive from the functional aspects of a structure, rather than from ornamentation or superficial design elements.
Great Fire of Chicago: The Great Fire of Chicago was a devastating conflagration that occurred from October 8 to October 10, 1871, destroying a significant portion of the city and leading to transformative changes in urban planning and building practices. This disaster resulted in a massive rebuilding effort, which provided an opportunity for architects and builders to innovate and experiment with new construction techniques, ultimately contributing to the emergence of the skyscraper and the development of the Chicago School.
Guaranty building: The guaranty building refers to a pioneering skyscraper located in Buffalo, New York, designed by the renowned architect Louis Sullivan in 1896. It is recognized for its innovative use of steel-frame construction and its decorative terra cotta facade, which embodies the principles of the Chicago School of architecture. This building marked a significant moment in architectural history as it illustrated the potential of skyscrapers to combine function and beauty, setting a precedent for future high-rise designs.
Home Insurance Building: The Home Insurance Building, completed in 1885 in Chicago, is often considered the first skyscraper due to its innovative use of steel-frame construction. This building marked a significant turning point in architectural design and urban development, showcasing how new materials and techniques allowed for taller structures, ultimately leading to the birth of the modern skyscraper. Its design principles and structural advancements contributed greatly to shaping the skyline of cities and reflected the industrial growth during this period.
Horizontal bands of windows: Horizontal bands of windows refer to a design feature in architecture where rows of windows are arranged in a continuous line along the façade of a building, creating a visually striking and cohesive appearance. This approach became prominent during the development of skyscrapers, emphasizing the verticality of the structure while allowing for ample natural light and views. It is a hallmark of the Chicago School, which sought to innovate in urban architecture by enhancing functionality and aesthetics through such design elements.
Louis Sullivan: Louis Sullivan was a pioneering American architect often referred to as the 'father of skyscrapers' and a key figure in the development of modern architecture. His innovative designs emphasized function over form, merging aesthetics with the new technology of steel-frame construction, which became a hallmark of the Chicago School's architectural movement. Sullivan's influence extended beyond just his buildings; he played a crucial role in shaping architectural philosophy, particularly with his famous mantra 'form follows function.'
Mechanical ventilation: Mechanical ventilation is a system that uses fans or blowers to circulate and exchange air within a building, ensuring fresh air enters while stale air is expelled. This technology became crucial in skyscrapers to manage air quality and temperature in high-rise structures, where natural ventilation alone was insufficient due to their height and density. The use of mechanical systems enabled architects to design taller buildings while maintaining comfortable indoor environments.
Ornamental details: Ornamental details refer to the decorative elements added to buildings and structures to enhance their visual appeal, often reflecting artistic styles and cultural influences. These details play a significant role in defining the character of architectural designs, especially in the context of modern skyscrapers where aesthetics meet functionality. They can be seen in various forms such as carvings, moldings, cornices, and facades that contribute to the overall design narrative.
Pneumatic Caissons: Pneumatic caissons are large, watertight structures used in underwater construction that allow workers to operate in a pressurized environment. This technique became vital during the construction of skyscrapers and bridges, particularly in Chicago, where engineers faced the challenge of building on unstable, submerged soil. By using pneumatic caissons, they could safely excavate and lay foundations deep into the earth, which was crucial for the stability and height of the rising skyscrapers.
Steel-frame construction: Steel-frame construction is a building technique that uses a framework of vertical steel columns and horizontal beams to support the structure. This method allows for taller buildings with larger open spaces, making it a fundamental innovation in the design and engineering of skyscrapers. The introduction of steel-frame construction enabled architects to explore new design possibilities and create iconic structures that define modern skylines.
Vertical Lines: Vertical lines are straight lines that run up and down, perpendicular to the horizon. In architecture, especially in the context of the Chicago School and the birth of the skyscraper, vertical lines symbolize upward movement and contribute to the impression of height and grandeur. This design element is often emphasized in skyscrapers, where architects sought to create a feeling of aspiration and modernity through elongated forms.
Wainwright Building: The Wainwright Building is a pioneering skyscraper designed by Louis Sullivan, completed in 1891 in St. Louis, Missouri. This structure is celebrated for its innovative use of steel frame construction and its embodiment of the principles of the Chicago School, which emphasized verticality and the expression of a building's structure. The Wainwright Building represents a significant moment in architectural history, marking the transition to modern skyscraper design while influencing future generations of architects.
William Le Baron Jenney: William Le Baron Jenney was an influential American architect and structural engineer, often referred to as the 'Father of the Skyscraper.' His innovations in building technology, particularly the use of steel frames and fireproof materials, played a pivotal role in the development of the modern skyscraper, especially in the context of the Chicago School's architectural movement.