👤Lives and Legacies in the Ancient World Unit 4 – Ancient Greece

Key Events and Timeline

• Ancient Greek civilization emerged around 3000 BCE with the rise of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete
• Mycenaean civilization developed on mainland Greece around 1600 BCE, known for their impressive fortifications and palaces (Mycenae, Tiryns)
• The Bronze Age collapse occurred around 1200 BCE, leading to the decline of Mycenaean civilization and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages
• The Archaic Period (800-480 BCE) saw the rise of city-states (poleis), the development of the Greek alphabet, and the emergence of Greek colonization throughout the Mediterranean
• The Classical Period (480-323 BCE) began with the Persian Wars and ended with the death of Alexander the Great
  • The Golden Age of Athens (480-404 BCE) witnessed the flourishing of art, architecture, philosophy, and democracy under the leadership of Pericles
  • The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens and Sparta ended Athenian dominance and weakened the Greek city-states
• The Hellenistic Period (323-31 BCE) followed Alexander the Great's conquests and saw the spread of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean and Near East

Political Structure and Governance

• Ancient Greece was not a unified nation but a collection of independent city-states (poleis) with diverse political systems
• Athens developed the world's first democracy in the 5th century BCE, where male citizens participated directly in decision-making through the Ecclesia (assembly)
  • Athenian democracy was led by elected officials, such as the strategoi (generals) and the archons (magistrates)
  • Ostracism was a process used to exile political figures deemed a threat to democracy
• Sparta was an oligarchy governed by two hereditary kings and a council of elders (Gerousia)
  • Spartan society was highly militarized, with a focus on discipline and obedience
  • The Ephors were five annually elected officials who supervised the kings and maintained the Spartan constitution
• Other city-states had various political systems, including tyrannies (rule by a single individual), oligarchies (rule by a small group of wealthy citizens), and monarchies (rule by a king)
• The Delian League, led by Athens, and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, were two major political and military alliances during the Classical Period

Social Classes and Daily Life

• Ancient Greek society was hierarchical, with distinct social classes
  • The aristocracy consisted of wealthy landowners who held political power
  • The middle class included farmers, artisans, and merchants
  • Slaves, often captured in war or purchased, performed manual labor and domestic work
• Gender roles were clearly defined, with men dominating public life and women primarily confined to the household
  • Athenian women had limited rights and were expected to manage the household and raise children
  • Spartan women had more freedom and were encouraged to engage in physical training to produce strong offspring
• Education was highly valued, particularly in Athens, where boys were taught reading, writing, music, and athletics in schools or by private tutors
• Ancient Greeks enjoyed various forms of entertainment, including athletic competitions (Olympic Games), theater performances (tragedies and comedies), and symposia (drinking parties)
• Diet consisted mainly of bread, wine, olive oil, and vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions or religious festivals

Art, Architecture, and Culture

• Ancient Greek art and architecture emphasized harmony, proportion, and idealized beauty
• Sculpture evolved from stylized, geometric forms in the Archaic Period to naturalistic, idealized representations in the Classical Period
  • Famous sculptures include the Discus Thrower (Myron), the Parthenon Marbles (Phidias), and the Venus de Milo
• Vase painting depicted scenes from daily life, mythology, and history, using techniques such as black-figure and red-figure pottery
• Monumental architecture, such as temples, showcased the Greeks' mastery of proportion and design
  • The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis, dedicated to the goddess Athena, is a prime example of Classical architecture
  • The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were three distinct architectural styles characterized by their column capitals and entablatures
• Theater was a significant aspect of Greek culture, with plays performed at religious festivals in honor of Dionysus
  • Tragedies, such as those by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, explored themes of fate, justice, and human suffering
  • Comedies, such as those by Aristophanes, satirized contemporary politics and society

Philosophy and Intellectual Achievements

• Ancient Greek philosophers sought to understand the nature of reality, knowledge, and human existence
• The Pre-Socratic philosophers (6th-5th centuries BCE) focused on the natural world and the origin of the universe
  • Thales of Miletus proposed that water was the primary substance of the universe
  • Pythagoras explored the mathematical principles underlying reality
• Socrates (470-399 BCE) emphasized the importance of critical thinking and ethical behavior
  • The Socratic method involves questioning and dialogue to stimulate critical thinking and expose the limits of knowledge
• Plato (428-348 BCE), a student of Socrates, developed the theory of Forms and the concept of the ideal state in his works, such as "The Republic"
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE), a student of Plato, made significant contributions to logic, biology, physics, and ethics
  • His works, such as "Nicomachean Ethics" and "Politics," had a lasting influence on Western philosophy
• Greek mathematicians, such as Euclid and Archimedes, made groundbreaking discoveries in geometry and physics
  • Euclid's "Elements" systematized geometry and served as a foundation for mathematics until the 19th century
  • Archimedes made significant contributions to hydrostatics and the concept of pi ($\pi$)

Mythology and Religion

• Ancient Greek religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses believed to reside on Mount Olympus
  • Zeus, the king of the gods, ruled the sky and thunder
  • Athena, the goddess of wisdom and war, was the patron deity of Athens
  • Apollo, the god of music, poetry, and prophecy, was associated with the Oracle of Delphi
• Mythology played a central role in Greek religion and culture, with stories of gods, heroes, and monsters passed down through oral tradition and literature
  • The Twelve Labors of Heracles, the Trojan War, and the Odyssey are famous examples of Greek mythological tales
• Religious festivals, such as the Panathenaea in Athens and the Olympic Games in honor of Zeus, were important social and cultural events
• Mystery cults, such as the Eleusinian Mysteries, offered initiates the promise of a better afterlife through secret rituals and teachings
• Oracles, such as the Oracle of Delphi, were consulted for prophecies and guidance in decision-making
• The Greeks believed in the importance of honoring the gods through prayer, sacrifice, and the construction of temples and shrines

Military Campaigns and Conflicts

• The Persian Wars (499-449 BCE) were a series of conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire
  • The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) saw the Athenians defeat a larger Persian force, cementing Athens' position as a major power
  • The Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) featured the heroic last stand of the Spartan King Leonidas and his 300 warriors against the Persians
  • The Battle of Salamis (480 BCE) was a decisive naval victory for the Greeks, leading to the eventual Persian withdrawal from Greece
• The Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was a prolonged conflict between Athens and Sparta for dominance over Greece
  • The war ended with the defeat of Athens and the establishment of Spartan hegemony
• The campaigns of Alexander the Great (336-323 BCE) expanded Greek influence and culture throughout the Mediterranean and Near East
  • Alexander's victories over the Persian Empire at the battles of Issus (333 BCE) and Gaugamela (331 BCE) led to the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty
  • The Hellenistic Period saw the emergence of Greek-influenced kingdoms, such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt and the Seleucid Empire in Asia
• The development of the phalanx formation and the use of hoplites (heavily armed infantry) were key elements of Greek warfare
• Naval warfare played a significant role in Greek conflicts, with triremes (warships with three rows of oars) being the primary vessels used in battle

Legacy and Influence on Western Civilization

• Ancient Greek culture, philosophy, and political thought have had a profound and lasting impact on Western civilization
• The Greek alphabet, adapted from the Phoenician script, became the basis for the Latin alphabet used in Western languages
• Greek art and architecture influenced later artistic movements, such as the Renaissance and Neoclassicism
  • The Parthenon and other Greek temples served as models for public buildings and monuments in the West
• Greek philosophy laid the foundation for Western thought, with the works of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle shaping the development of logic, ethics, and metaphysics
• The concept of democracy, first developed in Athens, has become a cornerstone of modern Western political systems
• Greek literature, including the epic poems of Homer and the plays of the great tragedians, continues to be studied and adapted in contemporary culture
• The Olympic Games, revived in 1896, are a testament to the enduring legacy of ancient Greek athletic competitions
• Greek mythology has inspired countless works of art, literature, and popular culture, from Botticelli's "Birth of Venus" to Rick Riordan's "Percy Jackson" series