8.4 Poetry of the mid-18th century
5 min read•august 1, 2024
The mid-18th century saw poetry shift from formal Augustan styles to more personal, emotional expression. , , and became key themes, while new forms like the gained popularity. This transition laid the groundwork for the upcoming Romantic movement.
Poets like , , and exemplified this change. They blended traditional forms with emerging sensibilities, exploring themes of rural life, death, and spirituality. Their work reflected broader social and cultural shifts of the period.
Poetry of the Mid-18th Century
Shifting Themes and Styles
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE to EVENING. (William Collins) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE. On MELANCHOLY. (William Mason) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / A Pastoral BALLAD, in Four Parts. Written 1743 ... View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE to EVENING. (William Collins) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE. On MELANCHOLY. (William Mason) View original
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Top images from around the web for Shifting Themes and Styles
Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE to EVENING. (William Collins) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE. On MELANCHOLY. (William Mason) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / A Pastoral BALLAD, in Four Parts. Written 1743 ... View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE to EVENING. (William Collins) View original
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Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive / Works / ODE. On MELANCHOLY. (William Mason) View original
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- Mid-18th-century poetry transitioned from Augustan formalism to personal and emotional expression reflecting the emerging sensibility movement
- Nature became a prominent theme used as a backdrop for contemplation and inspiration foreshadowing the Romantic movement
- Melancholy and mortality emerged as recurring themes reflecting the period's fascination with human transience and the
- evolved to include more realistic depictions of rural life moving away from idealized representations
- began to appear in poetry introducing supernatural and mysterious aspects that would later influence Romantic literature
- and remained prevalent often employed to explore abstract concepts and moral themes (death, virtue)
Emerging Poetic Forms
- The ode emerged as a significant poetic form allowing for more complex structures and emotional depth than previous neoclassical forms
- and persisted alongside more emotional content demonstrating the blend of formal elements with new sensibilities
- began to appear in works like Christopher Smart's "" representing a departure from conventional forms
- The combined with pre-romantic themes of death and melancholy (Edward Young's "Night Thoughts")
- Revival of interest in medieval and contributed to the (Thomas Percy's "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry")
Key Poets of the Mid-18th Century
Thomas Gray
- "" exemplifies the period's preoccupation with mortality and democratization of poetic subjects
- Use of quatrains and iambic pentameter in the "Elegy" demonstrates the persistence of formal elements alongside more emotional content
- Explored themes of rural life, death, and the human condition in accessible language
- Incorporated classical allusions and personification while maintaining emotional depth
- Other notable works include "" and ""
William Collins
- "" showcases the period's fascination with nature and the development of the ode form in English poetry
- Poetry often incorporates personified abstractions and mythological references blending neoclassical elements with emerging pre-romantic sensibilities
- "" reflects on national identity and political events demonstrating the influence of contemporary issues on poetry
- Use of vivid imagery and emotional intensity foreshadowed Romantic techniques
- Other significant works include "" and ""
Christopher Smart
- "Jubilate Agno" represents a departure from conventional forms featuring free verse and intense religious fervor
- "" illustrates the period's exploration of spiritual themes and the sublime through innovative poetic techniques
- Blended religious devotion with nature imagery creating unique and visionary poetry
- Experimental use of language and structure challenged traditional poetic conventions
- Work often reflected his struggles with mental illness providing insight into the period's understanding of psychology and spirituality
Neoclassicism vs Sensibility
Neoclassical Influences
- Adherence to formal structures and use of classical allusions persisted though their dominance began to wane
- Emphasis on reason, order, and restraint continued to shape some poetic works
- Use of and other traditional forms remained common in certain poetic circles
- and historical references provided a shared cultural vocabulary for poets and readers
- Satirical and didactic elements from the earlier Augustan period still appeared in some works
Emergence of Sensibility
- Emphasized and individual feeling encouraging poets to explore more personal and subjective themes
- Focused on the capacity for refined emotion and sensitivity to beauty and suffering
- Promoted the idea of the "" as an ideal of moral and emotional refinement
- Encouraged exploration of melancholy, sympathy, and introspection in poetry
- Influenced the development of more accessible language and relatable subject matter in poetry
Pre-Romantic Trends
- Increased focus on nature, imagination, and the sublime laid the groundwork for the later Romantic movement
- Exploration of the individual's emotional and psychological experiences became more prominent
- Interest in folk traditions, medieval literature, and national history grew (, legends)
- Shift towards more spontaneous and less formal poetic expression began to emerge
- Tension between reason and emotion reflected the broader cultural shift from Enlightenment ideals towards Romantic sensibilities
Poetry and Social Change
Changing Readership and Publication
- Rise of the middle class and increased literacy rates led to a broader audience for poetry influencing both subject matter and style
- Growth of periodical culture and provided new platforms for poets to publish and reach wider audiences (, )
- Gradual erosion of aristocratic patronage systems led to changes in poetic production and distribution with poets increasingly writing for a public market
- Increased importance of public opinion and critical reviews in shaping poetic reputations and success
Political and Cultural Influences
- Political events such as the inspired patriotic poetry and reflections on national identity (Collins' "Ode to Liberty")
- Ongoing process of industrialization and urbanization prompted poetic responses often idealizing rural life and lamenting the loss of traditional ways
- Increased global trade and exploration expanded the poetic imagination introducing exotic imagery and cross-cultural influences (Oriental tales, travelogues)
- Philosophical ideas of the Enlightenment particularly empiricism and skepticism influenced poetic themes and approaches to knowledge and perception
Social Commentary and Critique
- Poetry began to address social issues more directly including poverty, injustice, and the effects of war
- Satirical poetry continued to critique social and political institutions though often with more subtlety than earlier Augustan works
- Exploration of class differences and social mobility became more prominent reflecting changing social structures
- Gender roles and the position of women in society began to be questioned in some poetic works foreshadowing later feminist critiques
Key Terms to Review (41)
A Song to David: A Song to David is a poem by the 18th-century British poet Christopher Smart that praises the biblical figure King David, emphasizing his virtues, struggles, and divine inspiration. This work reflects the mid-18th century's focus on personal emotion and spirituality, as it celebrates faith and artistic expression in the context of a religious framework.
Allegory: Allegory is a narrative technique in which characters, events, and details within a story symbolize broader themes and moral meanings. This literary form enables authors to convey complex ideas and social commentary through symbolic representation, allowing deeper exploration of philosophical, political, and ethical issues.
Ballads: Ballads are narrative poems that tell stories, often focusing on themes of love, death, and adventure. They typically follow a simple structure with a refrain, making them memorable and easy to recite. In the context of the mid-18th century poetry, ballads played a significant role in popular culture, blending oral traditions with literary forms and reflecting societal changes.
Christopher Smart: Christopher Smart was an English poet known for his unique style and themes, particularly in the context of the mid-18th century poetry. He is often recognized for his work 'Jubilate Agno,' which reflects his intense religious fervor and visionary experiences. Smart's poetry stands out due to its complex structures and rich imagery, which helped pave the way for later Romantic poets and their exploration of individualism and spirituality.
Classical mythology: Classical mythology refers to the body of myths and legends originating from ancient Greece and Rome, encompassing a wide range of stories about gods, goddesses, heroes, and mythical creatures. These narratives not only served as entertainment but also conveyed moral lessons, cultural values, and explanations of natural phenomena, significantly influencing literature and art throughout the ages.
Couplet: A couplet is a pair of consecutive lines of poetry that typically rhyme and have the same meter. In mid-18th century poetry, couplets were often employed to create rhythm and structure, serving as a foundational element for conveying themes and ideas succinctly. This form allows poets to express complete thoughts or ideas within the confines of just two lines, enhancing both clarity and aesthetic appeal.
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard: Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard is a poem by Thomas Gray, composed in the 18th century, reflecting on death, mortality, and the lives of ordinary people. This work exemplifies themes of humility and the inevitability of death, while also offering a meditation on the value of simple lives that often go unnoticed. Its exploration of these universal themes connects to the broader characteristics of mid-18th century poetry, highlighting the shift toward sentimentality and introspection.
Emotional response: An emotional response is the feeling or reaction that arises in response to a stimulus, often involving a combination of physical sensations, thoughts, and behaviors. In the context of poetry from the mid-18th century, emotional responses are crucial as they connect readers deeply with the themes, imagery, and sentiments expressed by the poet. This connection allows for a rich engagement with the text, revealing not only personal interpretations but also broader societal issues and human experiences.
Folk traditions: Folk traditions refer to the customs, beliefs, stories, and practices passed down through generations within a particular community or culture. These traditions often reflect the values and experiences of the people, including their oral histories, music, dances, and rituals. In the context of poetry from the mid-18th century, folk traditions played a significant role in shaping literary themes and styles as poets sought to connect with their cultural roots and the everyday lives of ordinary people.
Free verse: Free verse is a form of poetry that does not adhere to a consistent meter, rhyme scheme, or any specific structure, allowing poets to express their thoughts and feelings more freely and organically. This style of poetry emphasizes natural speech patterns and often mirrors the rhythms of everyday language, making it a significant tool for exploring complex emotions and ideas.
Gothic elements: Gothic elements refer to a set of literary features that evoke mystery, horror, and the supernatural, often utilizing dark settings, complex characters, and themes of psychological struggle. These elements create an atmosphere of dread and suspense that engages readers on both emotional and intellectual levels, highlighting the darker aspects of human experience.
Graveyard school of poetry: The graveyard school of poetry refers to a style of writing that emerged in the 18th century, characterized by themes of death, mortality, and the contemplation of the grave. This poetic movement often features melancholy imagery and a fascination with the macabre, aiming to evoke deep emotional responses from readers while reflecting on human existence and the inevitability of death. Poets associated with this movement tend to adopt a somber tone and utilize imagery related to graves, tombs, and the natural decay of life.
Heroic couplets: Heroic couplets are pairs of rhymed lines of iambic pentameter, often used in English poetry to convey themes of heroism and grandeur. This form became a prominent feature in the poetry of the late 17th and early 18th centuries, reflecting the clarity and balance favored by Augustan poets, and eventually transitioning into the more expressive styles of Romantic poetry.
How Sleep the Brave: 'How Sleep the Brave' is a phrase from a poem by William Collins, often interpreted as a reflection on the themes of heroism, sacrifice, and mortality. It connects to mid-18th century poetry by illustrating the romanticized view of death in battle and the glorification of valiant warriors who find eternal rest after their struggles. The phrase captures the essence of a soldier's fate and evokes deep emotional responses regarding honor and loss within this literary context.
Iambic pentameter: Iambic pentameter is a metrical pattern in poetry consisting of five iambs per line, where an iamb is a metrical foot made up of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. This rhythmic structure has been a dominant form in English poetry, especially during the mid-18th century, as it lends a natural flow to the language and enhances the emotional depth of the verse. Many poets used this meter to achieve a sense of balance and musicality in their works.
Individualism: Individualism is a social and political philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual, advocating for personal freedom and self-reliance. This concept connects deeply to various cultural and literary movements, influencing how characters are portrayed and how narratives unfold, particularly during periods of societal transformation.
Jacobite Rebellion of 1745: The Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 was a significant uprising in Great Britain aimed at restoring the Stuart monarchy to the throne. Led by Charles Edward Stuart, also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie, this rebellion sought to overturn the Hanoverian rule following the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The rebellion ultimately ended in defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, which had profound implications for the political landscape and cultural expression of the time, influencing the poetry and literature of the mid-18th century.
Jubilate agno: Jubilate Agno is a poem by Christopher Smart, written between 1759 and 1763, that is known for its unique structure and exuberant celebration of creation, spirituality, and the natural world. The poem reflects Smart's own experiences with mental illness and his deep faith, often blending personal insight with a broader commentary on existence and the divine.
Literary magazines: Literary magazines are periodicals that publish a range of written works, including poetry, fiction, essays, and criticism, often focusing on new or emerging writers. These magazines serve as a platform for literary expression and experimentation, reflecting the evolving trends and styles in literature during specific periods.
Man of feeling: The term 'man of feeling' refers to a character archetype in literature, particularly prominent in the mid-18th century, who embodies heightened sensitivity, emotional depth, and a strong moral compass. This figure often experiences intense emotions and compassion for others, showcasing vulnerability while navigating societal expectations. The concept is connected to themes of sentimentality and the exploration of human emotion prevalent in poetry and prose of this era.
Melancholy: Melancholy is a deep, persistent sadness or gloom that often evokes feelings of nostalgia, reflection, and introspection. It frequently appears in literature as a theme or mood, influencing the tone and emotional depth of poetic works, often tied to the human experience and the contemplation of loss, nature, and mortality.
Mortality: Mortality refers to the state of being subject to death, often reflecting on the fragility and transience of human life. This theme resonates deeply in literature, prompting explorations of existence, the passage of time, and the inevitability of death, influencing the way poets express emotions and themes throughout various literary periods.
Nature: Nature refers to the inherent qualities, characteristics, and elements of the natural world, often seen as a source of inspiration, beauty, and truth in literature. This concept not only encompasses the physical environment but also reflects deeper philosophical ideas about humanity's connection to the world around them, particularly in poetry and artistic expression.
Neoclassical form: Neoclassical form refers to a set of artistic principles and conventions that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing clarity, order, and adherence to classical ideals. In poetry, this style is characterized by its structured forms, such as heroic couplets, and a focus on reason, wit, and moral themes. This approach reflects a reaction against the emotionalism of the preceding Baroque period and seeks to revive the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art and literature.
Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism is an artistic and literary movement that emerged in the late 17th century, emphasizing reason, order, and classical ideals derived from ancient Greek and Roman culture. This movement was characterized by its focus on clarity, harmony, restraint, and a structured approach to both art and literature, reflecting the political and social contexts of its time.
Ode: An ode is a type of lyrical poem that expresses deep emotion and is often characterized by its formal structure and elevated language. Typically written to praise or glorify an individual, an event, or an abstract concept, odes are significant in various literary movements and serve as a reflection of the era’s values and aesthetics.
Ode on the Death of a Favourite Cat: This poem, written by Thomas Gray in 1751, is a whimsical elegy that reflects on the death of a beloved cat named Selima. It blends humor and melancholy, showcasing Gray's ability to use a seemingly trivial subject to explore themes of loss and affection, typical of mid-18th century poetry's focus on personal emotion and nature.
Ode on the poetical character: An 'ode on the poetical character' is a reflective and often lyrical poem that explores the nature, role, and qualities of poets and poetry. It typically delves into themes like inspiration, creativity, and the emotional experiences that come with being a poet. This form of ode became significant during the mid-18th century, particularly as poets like Collins began innovating lyrical forms and exploring deep philosophical ideas within their work.
Ode to Evening: Ode to Evening is a poem by William Collins that personifies the evening as a gentle, soothing presence, inviting contemplation and peace. The poem showcases the beauty of the transition from day to night, reflecting on themes of tranquility and the fleeting nature of time. This work exemplifies the lyrical innovations of the mid-18th century, with its rich imagery and emotional depth.
Ode to liberty: An ode to liberty is a lyrical poem that expresses deep admiration for freedom and the ideals associated with it, often reflecting on its significance in the context of human experience. These odes typically blend emotional fervor with philosophical reflection, emphasizing the transformative power of liberty and its role in individual and societal progress.
Pastoral poetry: Pastoral poetry is a genre that idealizes rural life and nature, often portraying shepherds and the simplicity of their existence in contrast to urban life. This form typically emphasizes themes of love, beauty, and the harmony found in nature, creating a serene and idyllic atmosphere. It's closely tied to various poetic forms and techniques, which evolved through time, particularly during the late 17th to mid-19th centuries, where it became a vehicle for expressing deeper emotional and philosophical sentiments.
Personification: Personification is a literary technique where human qualities are attributed to non-human entities or abstract concepts. This device enhances the reader's emotional connection and understanding by allowing them to relate to inanimate objects, animals, or ideas as if they possess human traits. By giving voice and agency to the non-human, personification can deepen themes and emotions in literature.
Pre-romantic movement: The pre-romantic movement refers to a cultural and literary shift that occurred in the late 18th century, acting as a bridge between the rationality of the Enlightenment and the emotional expression of Romanticism. It emphasized individual feelings, nature, and the sublime, while reacting against the strict rules of Neoclassicism. This movement laid the groundwork for later Romantic poets and writers by promoting a focus on personal experience and emotional depth.
Quatrains: Quatrains are a type of stanza or poem consisting of four lines, often with a specific rhyme scheme. They are versatile and can be used in various poetic forms, such as sonnets or ballads, and can convey complex ideas within their brief structure. Quatrains were particularly popular in the poetry of the mid-18th century, allowing poets to express sentiments in a concise and rhythmic manner.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe in the late 18th century and emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature. It was a response to the industrial revolution and the scientific rationalization of nature, advocating for a return to emotional depth and a focus on personal experience in art and literature.
Sublime: The sublime refers to an aesthetic quality that evokes a sense of awe or beauty that transcends ordinary experience, often associated with vastness, grandeur, and the overwhelming power of nature. This concept plays a significant role in shaping poetic expression, influencing how emotions and perceptions are conveyed through imagery and themes.
The Gentleman's Magazine: The Gentleman's Magazine was a monthly publication founded in 1731 by Edward Cave, notable for being one of the first magazines to feature a blend of literary, political, and social commentary. It played a pivotal role in shaping the literary landscape of the 18th century, providing a platform for poetry, essays, and discussions on contemporary issues, thus influencing both writers and readers of that era.
The progress of poesy: The progress of poesy refers to the development and evolution of poetry as an art form, highlighting the changing styles, themes, and techniques that poets adopt over time. This concept reflects not only individual poet's journeys but also the broader shifts in literary culture and societal influences during different historical periods.
The rambler: The Rambler is a series of essays published by Samuel Johnson in the 1750s, which explored various topics including morality, society, and human behavior. These essays were instrumental in shaping the literary culture of the time and reflected Johnson's views on the importance of moral guidance through literature. The Rambler served as a platform for Johnson to engage with the public, influencing both readers and writers within the Johnsonian circle.
Thomas Gray: Thomas Gray was an English poet and scholar known for his lyrical poetry and his role in the pre-Romantic movement. His most famous work, 'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,' captures themes of mortality and the beauty of nature, bridging the gap between the formal structures of Augustan poetry and the emotional depth found in Romantic poetry.
William Collins: William Collins was an English poet known for his significant contributions to the poetry of the mid-18th century, particularly through his odes that bridge the gap between Augustan poetry and Romanticism. His work is characterized by lyrical innovation and a pre-Romantic sensibility, exploring themes of nature, beauty, and human emotion, making him a pivotal figure in the transition from one poetic era to another.