10.3 Information Processing Models
2 min read•august 7, 2024
Information processing models explain how our brains handle incoming data. These models break down memory into distinct systems, each playing a unique role in storing and retrieving information. Understanding these systems helps us grasp how we learn and remember things.
The and are key concepts. They show how information moves through different memory stages and how deep thinking leads to better retention. highlights the power of combining words and images for stronger memories.
Memory Systems
Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory
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- briefly holds sensory information (sights, sounds) for processing
- stores visual information for a few hundred milliseconds
- stores auditory information for a few seconds
- (STM) holds a limited amount of information for a short period
- STM capacity is around 7 ± 2 items ()
- Information in STM decays rapidly without (18-20 seconds)
Working Memory and Long-Term Memory
- actively manipulates and processes information from STM and (LTM)
- controls and coordinates information in working memory
- stores and rehearses verbal information (inner voice)
- holds and manipulates visual and spatial information (mental images)
- integrates information from various sources into a coherent episode
- Long-term memory (LTM) stores vast amounts of information for an extended period
- LTM has virtually unlimited capacity and duration
- from LTM can be explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious)
Information Processing Models
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model and Levels of Processing
- Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes three memory stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term
- Information flows from sensory memory to STM through attention
- Rehearsal in STM transfers information to LTM for permanent storage
- Levels of processing theory suggests memory depends on the depth of processing
- focuses on physical characteristics (font, sound)
- involves semantic analysis and elaboration (meaning, associations)
- Deeper levels of processing lead to better retention and retrieval
Dual-Coding Theory
- Dual-coding theory proposes two separate systems for processing and storing information
- processes and stores linguistic information (words, sentences)
- processes and stores visual and spatial information (images, sensations)
- Information encoded in both systems (verbal and visual) is more easily remembered
- Combining words and images enhances learning and memory (multimedia presentations)
Cognitive Structures
Cognitive Architecture
- refers to the underlying structure and organization of the mind
- Includes memory systems, processing units, and their interactions
- suggests the mind consists of specialized, domain-specific modules (language, face recognition)
- proposes that mental processes emerge from the activation of interconnected neural networks
- are organized knowledge structures that guide perception, understanding, and memory
- are schemas for event sequences and appropriate behaviors (restaurant script)
Key Terms to Review (27)
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model is a foundational framework in psychology that describes how information is processed and stored in the human memory system. It proposes three main components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, highlighting how information moves through these stages. Understanding this model is crucial for grasping concepts related to working memory and the overall information processing within the brain.
Central executive: The central executive is a crucial component of the working memory model that oversees and coordinates the processing of information. It acts like a control system, managing attention, decision-making, and the integration of new information with existing knowledge. This component is vital for performing complex cognitive tasks that require the manipulation and organization of multiple pieces of information.
Cognitive Architecture: Cognitive architecture refers to the underlying structures and mechanisms that support human cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. It serves as a framework for understanding how information is processed and stored in the mind, encompassing both the functional aspects of cognition and the interplay between different cognitive systems. This concept is crucial for developing models that simulate human thought and behavior in various contexts.
Connectionism: Connectionism is a theoretical framework in psychology and cognitive science that posits that mental processes and learning are the result of interconnected networks of simple units, often modeled after neural networks in the brain. This approach emphasizes how information is processed through these networks rather than relying on traditional symbolic representations. It connects to various principles of learning and brain structures, illustrating how knowledge is constructed from the associations formed within these networks.
Deep processing: Deep processing refers to the cognitive strategy of analyzing information by focusing on its meaning and relationships to other concepts, rather than just superficial features. This approach enhances understanding and retention, as it encourages the formation of elaborate associations and connections that facilitate memory retrieval. Deep processing contrasts with shallow processing, where information is processed based solely on surface characteristics like physical appearance or sound.
Dual-coding theory: Dual-coding theory suggests that information is better retained and recalled when it is represented both visually and verbally. This theory emphasizes the importance of using multiple channels to process information, which enhances learning by creating richer cognitive associations. The combination of images and words allows learners to create mental representations that are more likely to stick in memory.
Echoic Memory: Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that specifically deals with auditory information, allowing sounds to be stored for a brief period after they are perceived. This form of memory is crucial for processing language and understanding spoken words, as it enables individuals to retain sounds long enough to comprehend them and respond accordingly. Echoic memory typically lasts for a few seconds, providing a brief window for the brain to analyze and interpret auditory stimuli.
Episodic buffer: The episodic buffer is a component of Baddeley's model of working memory that integrates information from various sources, including the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory, into a coherent episode. It acts as a temporary storage system that allows for the combination of new and existing information, enabling the formation of more complex representations of experiences.
Explicit memory: Explicit memory refers to the type of long-term memory that involves the conscious recollection of facts and events. It is divided into two subcategories: semantic memory, which is the storage of general knowledge and concepts, and episodic memory, which pertains to personal experiences and specific events in time. This type of memory plays a crucial role in the information processing models as it highlights how we actively encode, store, and retrieve information.
Iconic memory: Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that briefly retains visual information after the original stimulus has disappeared. It is a component of the broader information processing models, where it serves as a quick snapshot of the visual world, allowing individuals to retain images for a very short duration, usually around 250 milliseconds. This fleeting storage helps facilitate further processing and understanding of visual stimuli before they are either forgotten or encoded into long-term memory.
Implicit memory: Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to retrieve and is typically demonstrated through performance rather than recollection. This form of memory allows individuals to perform tasks or skills without actively recalling the information behind them, showing how prior experiences can influence behavior without awareness.
Levels of processing theory: Levels of processing theory suggests that the depth at which information is processed affects how well it is remembered. This theory emphasizes that deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better retention compared to shallow processing, which focuses on superficial features. By understanding how encoding, storage, and retrieval are influenced by the levels of processing, we can better appreciate how our memory functions.
Long-term memory: Long-term memory is the phase of memory that allows for the storage of information over extended periods, ranging from days to a lifetime. It encompasses the processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving vast amounts of information, facilitating learning and knowledge retention. Long-term memory can be divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) types, each playing a unique role in how we recall past experiences and acquired skills.
Miller's Law: Miller's Law states that the average number of objects an individual can hold in working memory is about seven, plus or minus two. This principle highlights the limitations of human memory capacity, particularly when processing information in various contexts. Understanding this law is crucial for developing effective information processing models that align with how people naturally encode and retrieve information.
Modularity: Modularity refers to the concept of breaking down complex systems into smaller, manageable, and interchangeable parts or modules. This approach allows for flexibility, easier maintenance, and adaptability, which are crucial in understanding how information is processed within cognitive systems. Modularity emphasizes the idea that various components can work independently yet contribute to a cohesive overall function, enabling efficient processing of information.
Nonverbal System: The nonverbal system encompasses the various ways individuals communicate without the use of words, including body language, gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice. This system plays a crucial role in conveying emotions and intentions, often enhancing or contradicting verbal communication. Understanding the nonverbal system is essential for effective interaction and interpretation of social cues.
Phonological loop: The phonological loop is a component of the working memory model that is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of verbal and auditory information. It plays a key role in tasks such as language comprehension, learning new words, and remembering sequences of sounds. This system can be divided into two subcomponents: the phonological store, which holds speech-based information, and the articulatory rehearsal process, which allows for the repetition of sounds to aid retention.
Rehearsal: Rehearsal is the cognitive process of repeatedly practicing or reviewing information to enhance memory retention. This technique is crucial in the stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval, as it helps to solidify information into long-term memory and makes it easier to access later. It involves various forms such as maintenance rehearsal, which focuses on repeating information, and elaborative rehearsal, which connects new information to existing knowledge for deeper understanding.
Retrieval: Retrieval refers to the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness when it is needed. This crucial step in memory allows individuals to recall past experiences, facts, and skills, playing a vital role in learning and cognitive functioning. Retrieval can be influenced by various factors such as the way information was encoded and stored, as well as the cues available during the recall process.
Schemas: Schemas are cognitive structures that help individuals organize and interpret information based on their previous experiences and knowledge. They serve as mental frameworks that guide the processing of new information, enabling people to make sense of the world around them. Schemas influence attention, perception, and memory, often leading to expectations about what will happen in a given context.
Scripts: Scripts are mental structures that help individuals organize knowledge and expectations about specific situations, guiding behavior and understanding. These cognitive frameworks are essential in processing information, as they allow people to predict what happens next based on previous experiences and contextual cues, thereby streamlining decision-making and behavior in familiar contexts.
Sensory memory: Sensory memory is the initial stage of memory that captures and holds incoming sensory information for a very brief period, typically just a few seconds. It acts as a temporary storage system for all the stimuli we encounter, allowing us to process and encode information before it fades away or moves into short-term memory. This mechanism is crucial for the encoding and retrieval processes, cognitive learning, and understanding how information flows through different stages in the information processing model.
Shallow processing: Shallow processing refers to a type of encoding that involves a superficial level of analysis, focusing primarily on the physical or perceptual characteristics of information rather than its meaning. This kind of processing typically leads to less durable memory storage, as it emphasizes surface features like sound or appearance over deeper semantic understanding, affecting how well the information can be retrieved later.
Short-term memory: Short-term memory refers to the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period, typically around 15 to 30 seconds. This form of memory is crucial in cognitive processes as it allows individuals to temporarily store and manipulate information needed for tasks such as problem-solving and decision-making, which are vital for learning. The efficiency of short-term memory can significantly affect how well new knowledge is acquired and retained.
Verbal System: The verbal system refers to a cognitive framework that organizes and processes verbal information through various components such as phonological, semantic, and syntactic structures. This system plays a crucial role in understanding how individuals comprehend, produce, and remember language, which is essential for effective communication and learning.
Visuospatial sketchpad: The visuospatial sketchpad is a component of the working memory model that temporarily holds and manipulates visual and spatial information. It plays a crucial role in tasks that require visual imagery and spatial reasoning, such as navigating environments, recognizing faces, and solving puzzles. This system helps process visual data while interacting with the phonological loop, another key component of working memory.
Working memory: Working memory is a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information necessary for complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. It acts as a mental workspace, allowing individuals to manage and process information actively, which is essential for effective learning and problem-solving.