🌮Latin American Politics Unit 2 – Colonialism and Independence in Latin America

Historical Context

• Pre-Columbian civilizations (Maya, Aztec, Inca) thrived in Latin America before European colonization
• European exploration and conquest began in the late 15th century, driven by the desire for wealth, resources, and the spread of Christianity
• The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the New World between Spain and Portugal
• The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops (potatoes, tomatoes, maize), animals (horses, cattle), and diseases (smallpox, measles) to the Americas
• Indigenous populations experienced significant decline due to disease, warfare, and exploitation
• The Atlantic slave trade brought millions of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations and mines
• Colonial powers established a system of mercantilism, controlling trade and extracting wealth from the colonies

Key Colonial Powers

• Spain colonized much of Central and South America, as well as parts of the Caribbean
  • Established the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) and the Viceroyalty of Peru
  • Controlled the Philippines and parts of North Africa
• Portugal colonized Brazil and established a vast empire in Africa and Asia
  • Dominated the Atlantic slave trade
  • Established a plantation economy based on sugar production
• Britain, France, and the Netherlands established colonies in the Caribbean and North America
  • British colonies included Jamaica, Barbados, and the Thirteen Colonies
  • French colonies included Haiti, Guadeloupe, and Martinique
  • Dutch colonies included Suriname, Curaçao, and parts of Brazil (temporarily)

Colonial Systems and Structures

• The encomienda system granted Spanish colonists the right to indigenous labor and tribute in exchange for protection and religious instruction
  • Led to widespread abuse and exploitation of indigenous populations
• The mita system required indigenous people to perform forced labor in mines and on public works projects
• The hacienda system involved large landholdings worked by indigenous laborers and African slaves
  • Produced cash crops (sugar, tobacco, coffee) for export
• The Catholic Church played a significant role in colonial society, providing education, healthcare, and religious instruction
  • Missionaries (Jesuits, Franciscans) established missions to convert indigenous people to Christianity
• Colonial society was hierarchical, with European-born Spaniards (peninsulares) at the top, followed by American-born Spaniards (criollos), mixed-race individuals (mestizos and mulattos), indigenous people, and African slaves

Independence Movements

• The American and French Revolutions inspired independence movements in Latin America
• The Napoleonic Wars weakened Spain and Portugal, providing opportunities for rebellion
• Criollo elites led independence movements, seeking political and economic autonomy from European powers
  • Motivated by Enlightenment ideas of liberty, equality, and self-determination
  • Resented restrictions on trade and the lack of political representation
• Indigenous and mixed-race populations participated in independence struggles, hoping for social and economic reforms
• Independence wars were long and costly, lasting from the 1810s to the 1820s
  • Involved both guerrilla warfare and conventional battles
  • Required alliances between different regions and social groups

Revolutionary Leaders

• Simón Bolívar, known as "The Liberator," led independence movements in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia
  • Envisioned a united Latin America, but faced challenges in maintaining unity
• José de San Martín played a key role in the independence of Argentina, Chile, and Peru
  • Collaborated with Bolívar in the final stages of the wars
• Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos led the Mexican War of Independence
  • Hidalgo's "Grito de Dolores" (Cry of Dolores) sparked the initial uprising
• Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines led the Haitian Revolution, establishing the first independent black republic in the world
• Bernardo O'Higgins and José Miguel Carrera were central figures in the Chilean War of Independence

Post-Independence Challenges

• Political instability and power struggles between competing factions (conservatives vs. liberals, centralists vs. federalists)
  • Frequent coups, civil wars, and border disputes
• Economic challenges, including the need to rebuild infrastructure and establish new trade relationships
  • Dependence on exports of raw materials (agricultural products, minerals) and foreign investment
• Social and racial inequalities persisted, with limited progress on land reform and the rights of indigenous and African-descended populations
  • Continuation of forced labor systems in some regions
• The influence of the Catholic Church remained strong, often allied with conservative political forces
• Foreign intervention and the threat of recolonization by European powers
  • The United States began to assert its influence through the Monroe Doctrine and later interventions

Impact on Modern Latin America

• Legacy of colonial structures and inequalities continues to shape social, economic, and political realities
  • High levels of income inequality and concentration of land ownership
  • Ongoing struggles for indigenous rights and autonomy
• Economic dependence on exports of raw materials and foreign investment
  • Vulnerability to global market fluctuations and "boom and bust" cycles
• Political instability and the influence of military forces in some countries
  • Alternation between democratic and authoritarian rule
• Cultural diversity and the blending of indigenous, African, and European influences
  • Reflected in art, music, literature, and cuisine
• Ongoing debates over national identity, development models, and regional integration
  • Movements for social justice, environmental protection, and alternative economic models

Case Studies and Examples

• The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) as a response to the long-term impact of colonialism and inequality
  • Agrarian reform and the breaking up of large haciendas
  • The influence of revolutionary leaders like Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata
• The Cuban Revolution (1953-1959) and its anti-imperialist and socialist orientation
  • Fidel Castro's leadership and the nationalization of foreign-owned assets
  • The impact of the U.S. trade embargo and the collapse of the Soviet Union
• The Zapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico (1994) as a struggle for indigenous rights and autonomy
  • The role of globalization and neoliberal economic policies in exacerbating inequalities
• The "Pink Tide" of left-leaning governments in the early 21st century (Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina)
  • Efforts to reduce poverty, expand social programs, and assert national sovereignty
  • Challenges of economic management and political polarization
• The ongoing peace process in Colombia following decades of armed conflict
  • The role of the FARC guerrilla movement and the impact of the drug trade
  • Efforts to address the legacies of violence and promote reconciliation