💃Latin American History – 1791 to Present Unit 3 – Modernization and Positivism (1850-1880)

Key Concepts and Theories

• Positivism emphasized the importance of science, reason, and progress in shaping society and government
• Modernization theory proposed that societies progress through stages of development, from traditional to modern
• Social Darwinism applied Darwin's theory of natural selection to human societies, justifying social inequalities and imperialism
• Liberalism advocated for individual rights, free trade, and limited government intervention in the economy
  • Classical liberalism emphasized laissez-faire economics and minimal government interference
  • Reform liberalism sought to address social issues while maintaining a market-based economy
• Nationalism promoted a sense of shared identity and loyalty to the nation-state, often based on common language, culture, and history
• Secularization involved the separation of church and state and the decline of religious influence in public life
• Industrialization referred to the shift from an agricultural to a manufacturing-based economy, driven by technological innovations and capital investment

Historical Context and Timeline

• 1850s-1870s: Height of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America, which influenced Latin American countries to modernize
• 1850s: Rise of liberal governments in Latin America, such as Benito Juárez in Mexico and José Mármol in Argentina
• 1860s: Expansion of railway networks in countries like Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico, facilitating trade and economic growth
• 1864-1870: Paraguayan War, which had significant political and economic consequences for the region
• 1870s: Establishment of positivist-influenced governments, such as the Porfiriato in Mexico (1876-1911)
• 1879-1883: War of the Pacific between Chile, Peru, and Bolivia, driven by competition for nitrate resources
• 1888: Abolition of slavery in Brazil, the last country in the Americas to do so
• 1889: Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil, ending the monarchy and establishing a federal system

Major Political Changes

• Consolidation of nation-states and centralization of power, as governments sought to assert control over their territories
• Adoption of liberal constitutions that guaranteed individual rights, separation of powers, and limited government
• Expansion of suffrage, although often limited to literate males with property qualifications
• Emergence of caudillismo, a form of strongman rule characterized by charismatic leaders and patronage networks
• Establishment of positivist-influenced governments that emphasized order, progress, and modernization (Porfiriato in Mexico)
• Increased foreign intervention and influence, particularly from the United States and European powers
• Rise of opposition movements, including liberal reformers, radical intellectuals, and early labor organizations
  • These movements challenged the power of traditional elites and called for greater social and political reforms

Economic Transformations

• Shift from subsistence agriculture to export-oriented economies, focusing on primary commodities like coffee, sugar, and minerals
• Expansion of transportation infrastructure, particularly railroads and ports, to facilitate trade and economic integration
  • Railway networks connected interior regions to coastal ports, enabling the export of goods to international markets
  • Improved transportation also facilitated the movement of people and ideas, contributing to social and cultural changes
• Growth of foreign investment and ownership in key sectors, such as mining, agriculture, and infrastructure
• Emergence of a small but influential industrial sector, particularly in countries like Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico
• Concentration of land ownership and the rise of large haciendas and plantations, often at the expense of indigenous communities and small farmers
• Increased economic dependence on foreign markets and vulnerability to global price fluctuations
• Widening economic inequalities between the wealthy elite and the majority of the population, despite overall economic growth

Social and Cultural Shifts

• Rapid urbanization as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of employment and opportunities
  • Growth of urban working class and the emergence of new social problems, such as overcrowding and poor living conditions
• Expansion of public education and literacy, as governments sought to create a skilled workforce and promote national unity
  • Establishment of public schools and universities, although access remained limited for many
• Secularization of society and the decline of the Catholic Church's influence in public life
  • Separation of church and state and the rise of anti-clerical movements
• Emergence of a small but growing middle class, particularly in urban areas and among professionals and bureaucrats
• Continuation of racial and ethnic hierarchies, despite the formal abolition of slavery and legal equality
  • Indigenous and Afro-descendant populations faced ongoing discrimination and marginalization
• Influence of European cultural trends, such as romanticism and realism in literature and art
• Rise of nationalism and the construction of national identities, often based on idealized visions of the past and the exclusion of marginalized groups

Scientific and Technological Advancements

• Application of scientific methods and theories to agriculture, industry, and public health
  • Development of new crop varieties and farming techniques to increase productivity
  • Use of steam power and mechanization in manufacturing and transportation
• Expansion of telegraph and postal networks, facilitating communication and the spread of ideas
• Improvements in medicine and public health, such as the development of vaccines and the establishment of hospitals and sanitation systems
  • Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease and the development of pasteurization
  • Establishment of public health boards and campaigns to combat epidemics like yellow fever and cholera
• Exploration and mapping of previously unknown regions, particularly in the Amazon and Patagonia
• Adoption of European scientific and intellectual currents, such as positivism and social Darwinism
  • Influence of positivist thought on education, politics, and social policy
• Growth of scientific societies and institutions, such as the Brazilian Academy of Sciences (1916) and the Mexican Society of Geography and Statistics (1833)
• Increased interest in the study and preservation of pre-Columbian history and artifacts

Key Figures and Their Contributions

• Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (Argentina, 1811-1888): Educator and politician who promoted public education and modernization as president
• Benito Juárez (Mexico, 1806-1872): Liberal reformer and president who separated church and state and resisted French intervention
• Emperor Pedro II (Brazil, 1825-1891): Monarch who oversaw Brazil's modernization and the abolition of slavery
• Andrés Bello (Venezuela/Chile, 1781-1865): Intellectual and educator who promoted the study of law, philosophy, and the Spanish language
• Euclides da Cunha (Brazil, 1866-1909): Writer and journalist whose work "Os Sertões" (Rebellion in the Backlands) explored the conflict between modernization and traditional society
• José Martí (Cuba, 1853-1895): Poet, journalist, and revolutionary who advocated for Cuban independence and Latin American unity
• Flora Tristan (France/Peru, 1803-1844): Socialist writer and activist who championed women's rights and workers' causes
• Machado de Assis (Brazil, 1839-1908): Novelist and poet considered a pioneer of Brazilian realism and one of the greatest Latin American writers of the 19th century

Legacy and Impact on Latin America

• Establishment of modern nation-states with centralized governments and liberal constitutions
  • However, the consolidation of power often benefited a small elite at the expense of the majority
• Economic modernization and integration into the global economy, but also increased dependence on foreign markets and investment
• Expansion of transportation, communication, and education infrastructure, which laid the foundation for future development
• Secularization of society and the decline of the Catholic Church's influence in public life
• Emergence of new social classes and the beginnings of labor and social justice movements
• Continuation of social and economic inequalities, particularly along racial and ethnic lines
• Intellectual and cultural shifts that emphasized science, progress, and national identity
• Ongoing tensions between the drive for modernization and the preservation of traditional values and ways of life
• Set the stage for further political, economic, and social transformations in the 20th century, including the rise of populist and revolutionary movements