6.3 Development of literary theory and criticism
4 min read•august 6, 2024
The Six Dynasties period saw a boom in literary theory and criticism. Writers like , , and laid the groundwork for evaluating literature, emphasizing and .
Key works like "" explored the nature of writing, while "" ranked poets. These texts shaped Chinese literary criticism for generations to come.
Early Literary Critics
Influential Figures in Early Literary Criticism
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- Cao Pi (187-226 CE) was a prominent early literary critic who wrote the influential essay "A Discourse on Literature" that established basic criteria for literary criticism and emphasized the importance of originality and spontaneity in writing
- Liu Xie (c. 465-520 CE) further developed literary theory in his work "The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons", which discussed the nature of literature, the creative process, and the principles of literary composition (parallelism, tonal patterns)
- Zhong Rong (468-518 CE) was known for his work "Shipin" or "Critique of Poetry", which ranked and evaluated poets and poems of the past, influencing the development of Chinese poetic criticism
Foundational Texts in Chinese Literary Criticism
- "" or "The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons" by Liu Xie is considered one of the most comprehensive and systematic works of literary criticism in ancient China
- Explores the nature and function of literature, the creative process, and the principles of literary composition
- Discusses various literary genres, styles, and techniques, as well as the relationship between literature and society
- "Shipin" or "Critique of Poetry" by Zhong Rong is an influential work that established a grading system for evaluating poets and poems
- Ranks poets into three categories: upper, middle, and lower, based on their perceived artistic merit
- Provides critical assessments of individual poets and their works, setting standards for poetic excellence
Influential Works
Comprehensive Analysis of Literature: "Wenxin Diaolong"
- "Wenxin Diaolong" or "The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons" by Liu Xie is a monumental work in Chinese literary criticism
- Consists of 50 chapters covering various aspects of literature, including its nature, function, genres, styles, and techniques
- Explores the relationship between literature and the cosmos, emphasizing the idea that literature should reflect the harmony and order of the universe
- The work establishes a theoretical foundation for Chinese literary criticism and influences subsequent generations of critics and writers
- Introduces concepts such as "wind and bone" ( gu) to describe the ideal qualities of literary works
- Discusses the importance of originality, spontaneity, and sincerity in literary creation
Poetic Criticism and Evaluation: "Shipin"
- "Shipin" or "Critique of Poetry" by Zhong Rong is a seminal work in Chinese poetic criticism that establishes a grading system for evaluating poets and poems
- Divides poets into three categories: upper, middle, and lower, based on their artistic merit and influence
- Provides critical assessments of individual poets and their works, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses
- The work sets standards for poetic excellence and influences the development of Chinese poetry criticism
- Emphasizes the importance of originality, , and in poetry
- Encourages poets to draw inspiration from nature and express their inner feelings and experiences
Key Concepts
Literary Qualities: Feng (Wind) and Gu (Bone)
- Feng (wind) and gu (bone) are two essential qualities of good literature discussed in Liu Xie's "Wenxin Diaolong"
- Feng refers to the natural, spontaneous, and unrestrained aspect of literary creation, likened to the free-flowing nature of wind
- Gu represents the solid, substantial, and well-structured aspect of literary works, compared to the strength and firmness of bones
- The ideal balance of feng and gu in a literary work is believed to create a harmonious and powerful piece of writing
- A work with strong feng qualities may be emotionally resonant and expressive, but lack structure and coherence
- A work with dominant gu qualities may be well-crafted and technically proficient, but lack soul and spontaneity
Classification of Literary Genres
- Chinese literary critics developed a system for classifying various literary genres based on their form, content, and function
- Major genres include poetry (shi), prose (), rhapsody (), and lyrics (ci)
- Each genre has its own set of conventions, techniques, and aesthetic principles
- The classification of genres helps critics and readers understand the unique characteristics and requirements of each type of literature
- For example, poetry emphasizes concise language, emotional depth, and imagistic beauty, while prose values clarity, coherence, and persuasive argumentation
Development of Literary Aesthetics
- Chinese literary criticism contributes to the development of a distinct set of aesthetic principles and values in literature
- Emphasizes the importance of harmony, balance, and unity in literary works, reflecting the Confucian and Daoist philosophical traditions
- Values emotional sincerity, spontaneity, and the ability to capture the essence of human experiences and natural phenomena
- These aesthetic principles guide the creation, appreciation, and evaluation of literary works in ancient China
- Writers strive to create works that embody these aesthetic ideals, while critics assess the success of literary works based on their adherence to these principles
- The development of literary aesthetics shapes the evolution of Chinese literature and influences artistic expression in other forms, such as painting and calligraphy
Key Terms to Review (17)
Cao Pi: Cao Pi was a prominent figure during the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, known for being a poet, politician, and the first emperor of the state of Wei. His contributions to literature and political theory significantly influenced the development of literary criticism and theory during this era, particularly through his philosophical writings and poetry that emphasized moral integrity and governance.
Critique of poetry: The critique of poetry involves the analysis and evaluation of poetic works, focusing on elements such as form, language, themes, and cultural context. This practice has evolved over time, with various literary theories providing frameworks for understanding the value and significance of poetry within its historical and social settings.
Emotional depth: Emotional depth refers to the capacity of a literary work to evoke complex feelings and resonances within the reader, capturing the intricate nuances of human experience. This term encompasses a range of emotions, including sorrow, joy, longing, and despair, allowing readers to engage with the text on a profound level. In literature, emotional depth enhances the connection between the reader and characters or themes, enriching the overall experience and interpretation.
Feng: Feng refers to a specific type of poem or song in the ancient Chinese literary tradition, particularly within the Book of Songs. These poems are characterized by their focus on rural life, natural imagery, and social commentary, often conveying deeper themes related to love, loss, and the human experience. Feng is essential to understanding the structure and themes of early Chinese literature as it illustrates the harmony between humanity and nature, as well as social dynamics within society.
Fu: Fu is a type of Chinese prose poetry that emerged during the Han Dynasty, characterized by its combination of poetic and prose elements. This form often involves parallelism, rich imagery, and elaborate descriptions, making it a unique blend of narrative and lyrical qualities. Fu played a significant role in shaping literary styles and techniques, influencing subsequent poetic forms while also contributing to the evolution of literary theory and criticism in Chinese literature.
Human emotion: Human emotion refers to the complex psychological states that involve a subjective experience, physiological response, and expressive behaviors. These emotions play a crucial role in personal experiences and interpersonal relationships, influencing how individuals connect with one another and express their thoughts and feelings through various forms of art, including poetry and literary criticism.
Liu xie: Liu Xie was a prominent literary theorist and critic during the late 5th to early 6th century in China, best known for his work 'Wenxin Diaolong' (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons). This text laid foundational ideas about literary aesthetics and criticism, influencing how literature was perceived and analyzed in later periods. Liu Xie's thoughts reflect a shift towards a more systematic approach in evaluating literature, emphasizing the importance of literary style, moral purpose, and emotional expression.
Moral instruction: Moral instruction refers to the process of imparting ethical principles and values through literature and artistic expression. It plays a crucial role in shaping societal norms, guiding individual behavior, and fostering a sense of moral responsibility. This concept is intertwined with literary theory, which examines how texts convey moral messages, as well as dramatic forms, which often use storytelling to highlight moral dilemmas and character development.
Originality: Originality refers to the quality of being novel or unique, particularly in creative expressions such as literature, art, and ideas. It is often seen as a crucial measure of value in artistic endeavors, distinguishing works that offer fresh perspectives or innovative approaches from those that simply replicate existing forms. In the context of literary theory and criticism, originality involves both the author's individual voice and the broader cultural influences that shape creative output.
Song Dynasty Criticism: Song Dynasty Criticism refers to the literary and artistic evaluations and theories that emerged during the Song Dynasty (960-1279) in China. This period was marked by significant advancements in poetry, prose, and criticism, as scholars sought to articulate the standards of literary excellence and refine the understanding of aesthetic values.
Spontaneity: Spontaneity refers to the natural and unforced expression of ideas, emotions, and creativity, emphasizing a sense of freedom and authenticity in artistic and literary endeavors. In the context of philosophical thought, it underscores a contrast between rigid conventions and the organic flow of inspiration. This concept is particularly relevant in understanding how Confucian and Daoist ideas interact in literature, as well as how literary theory has evolved over time, reflecting changing attitudes towards individual expression.
Tang Poetry Movement: The Tang Poetry Movement refers to a flourishing of poetry during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) in China, characterized by its artistic excellence and profound cultural impact. This period saw the emergence of various poetic forms, themes, and styles that laid the groundwork for future Chinese literature and influenced literary theory and criticism in the centuries to come. The movement not only celebrated personal expression but also reflected societal values and the natural world, which became important aspects in the development of literary critique.
Technical Proficiency: Technical proficiency refers to the skill and ability to effectively utilize specific techniques and tools within a particular discipline, such as writing, analysis, or literary creation. In the context of literary theory and criticism, it involves understanding and applying various literary forms, structures, and devices to evaluate and produce literature critically.
The literary mind and the carving of dragons: The literary mind and the carving of dragons refers to a metaphorical concept in Chinese literature that illustrates the creative process and the importance of skillful craftsmanship in writing. This phrase emphasizes that genuine literature requires a deep intellectual engagement (the literary mind) and an artistic finesse (the carving of dragons), indicating that literature should not only convey ideas but also exhibit aesthetic beauty and precision. This concept is significant in understanding how literature has shaped society's values and political ideologies, as well as how it has influenced literary theory and criticism throughout history.
Wen: The term 'wen' translates to 'literature' or 'culture' in English, and encompasses a broad array of artistic and intellectual expressions in Chinese civilization. It plays a crucial role in understanding literary theory and criticism, Chinese literary aesthetics, and the development of Chinese writing. 'Wen' embodies the values of refinement and education, influencing how literature was created, critiqued, and appreciated throughout history.
Wenxin diaolong: Wenxin diaolong, or 'The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons,' is a foundational text in Chinese literary criticism and theory, written by Liu Xie during the sixth century. This work articulates the philosophy and principles of literature, emphasizing the interplay between literature and moral values, and it lays the groundwork for subsequent literary thought in China.
Zhong rong: Zhong rong is a critical concept in Chinese literary theory that refers to the principles of balance and harmony in literary expression, particularly the interplay between form and content. This term underscores the importance of achieving a proper blend of emotional depth and aesthetic beauty, reflecting an ideal that has influenced various schools of thought in Chinese literature and criticism.