Glossary

2.1 Development of Chinese writing: from oracle bones to characters

4 min read•august 6, 2024

Chinese writing evolved from oracle bones to modern characters over thousands of years. Early forms like oracle bone and bronze scripts were used for divination and rituals, providing insights into ancient Chinese society and beliefs.

Later developments like seal and clerical scripts improved efficiency and . The evolution of character types, from to , allowed Chinese writing to express a wide range of concepts and sounds.

Oracle Bone and Bronze Scripts

Early Writing on Oracle Bones

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  • (jiaguwen) earliest known form of Chinese writing dating back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE)
  • Inscriptions carved on animal bones or turtle shells used for divination purposes in royal court ceremonies
  • Oracle bones heated until cracks formed interpreted as messages from ancestors or gods about future events, weather, harvests, military campaigns
  • Over 150,000 oracle bone fragments discovered providing valuable insights into Shang society, politics, religion, agriculture (millet, rice)

Evolution to Bronze Script

  • (jinwen) emerged during late Shang Dynasty as writing began appearing on ritual bronze vessels, weapons, seals
  • Characters generally more rounded, symmetrical, and stylized compared to the more angular oracle bone script
  • Bronzes often commemorated important events, recorded clan histories, or honored ancestors showcasing advancements in metallurgy and casting techniques
  • Bronze script continued to evolve throughout the Western Zhou period (c. 1046-771 BCE) becoming more standardized and simplified

Seal and Clerical Scripts

Development of Seal Script

  • (zhuanshu) developed during the late Western Zhou period and reached maturity in the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE)
  • Used for official seals, carved into jade, or cast into bronzes signifying power and authority
  • Characters more stylized with rounded strokes and decorative flourishes compared to bronze script
  • Small seal script (xiaozhuan) standardized under Qin Shi Huang credited with unifying the Chinese writing system

Transition to Clerical Script

  • (lishu) emerged during the Qin Dynasty and became widely used in the Han period (206 BCE-220 CE)
  • Simplified and more efficient to write than the ornate seal script better suited for record-keeping, correspondence, and everyday use
  • Characters more rectilinear and angular with fewer strokes making them faster to write with a brush on bamboo or wooden slips
  • Innovations like combining semantic and components within a single character expanded the writing system's expressive capabilities

Standardization of Chinese Characters

  • First Emperor of Qin standardized Chinese script as part of sweeping reforms to unify the empire under a common writing system
  • Prime Minister tasked with creating a standardized list of characters and their forms to be used throughout the empire
  • Variant forms eliminated and characters systematized based on the Qin regional script laying the foundation for modern Chinese writing
  • Standardization facilitated communication, record-keeping, and cultural unity across the vast empire despite regional differences in spoken dialects

Character Types and Structure

Pictographs and Ideographs

  • Pictographs (xiangxingzi) are characters that visually resemble the objects they represent through simplified drawings (mountain 山, river 川, sun 日)
  • (zhishizi) express more abstract concepts through symbolic representation (up 上, down 下, middle 中)
  • Both pictographs and ideographs among the earliest character types that formed the basis for more complex characters
  • Many pictographs and ideographs have become highly stylized over time bearing less direct resemblance to their original referents

Logical Aggregates and Phonetic Loans

  • (huiyizi) are characters that combine two or more pictographic or ideographic elements to represent a new meaning (rest 休, bright 明)
  • (jiajiezi) are characters borrowed to represent words with similar pronunciations but different meanings (use of 莫 for "sunset" in oracle bone script)
  • Logical aggregates and phonetic loans allowed the writing system to represent a wider range of concepts and words
  • In some cases, the original pictographic origins of aggregate characters are still recognizable (forest 森 from three trees)

Phono-semantic Compounds

  • Phono-semantic compounds (xingshengzi) make up the vast majority of Chinese characters combining a semantic component (radical) with a phonetic component
  • Semantic component (bushou) suggests the general meaning while the phonetic component (shengpang) hints at the pronunciation
  • For example, in the character 清 (clear), the left component 氵means "water" while the right component 青 is phonetic
  • Phono-semantic compounds allowed the writing system to represent the large number of homophones in Chinese by disambiguating words with similar sounds
  • Understanding the semantic and phonetic components of characters is essential for learning and remembering them efficiently

Modern Script Forms

  • (kaishu) is the standard printed form of Chinese characters used today that emerged during the Cao Wei period (220–266 CE)
  • (caoshu) is a highly simplified and fluid form of writing Chinese characters used for and quick notation
  • (xingshu) falls between regular and cursive styles retaining more of the regular script structure while allowing for faster writing
  • All modern script styles are descendants of the clerical script with varying degrees of , abstraction, and artistic expression
  • Simplified Chinese characters introduced in the 20th century to increase rates by reducing the number of strokes in complex characters (horse 马 vs. 馬)

Key Terms to Review (25)

Bronze script: Bronze script refers to the ancient Chinese writing system used primarily during the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE), characterized by its inscriptions on bronze vessels and other artifacts. This script marks a significant evolution in Chinese writing, transitioning from the earlier oracle bone script and paving the way for the development of more standardized characters in later periods.
Calligraphy: Calligraphy is the art of beautiful handwriting, particularly in the context of Chinese culture where it is considered a highly esteemed form of artistic expression. It combines the aesthetic qualities of writing with the philosophical and cultural values inherent in the Chinese language, showcasing the relationship between form and meaning. Calligraphy serves as a bridge linking literature and visual arts, often enhancing the textual experience and adding depth to both written words and artistic representation.
Cangjie: Cangjie is a legendary figure in Chinese culture, credited with the invention of Chinese characters. He is said to have developed a system of writing based on the shapes of objects, which allowed for the recording of language and communication through written symbols. Cangjie's contributions marked a significant milestone in the evolution of Chinese writing, bridging the gap between primitive forms of communication, like oracle bones, and the more complex character system that defines modern Chinese literature.
Clerical Script: Clerical script is a style of Chinese writing that emerged during the Han dynasty, characterized by its simplification and speed of execution compared to earlier scripts. It played a crucial role in the development of Chinese characters by making writing more accessible and efficient, influencing both calligraphy and the evolution of modern Chinese writing systems.
Cursive Script: Cursive script refers to a style of Chinese calligraphy that emphasizes fluidity and speed, allowing for more expressive and artistic writing compared to standard scripts. This writing style developed as a means of simplifying complex characters for quicker notation, facilitating both personal expression and communication in a more efficient manner.
Han Dynasty Script Reform: The Han Dynasty Script Reform refers to significant changes made to the Chinese writing system during the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE), aimed at standardizing and simplifying characters to enhance literacy and administrative efficiency. This reform was crucial in transforming earlier forms of writing into a more cohesive and accessible system, linking it to the evolution of Chinese script from oracle bones to a more sophisticated character-based system used in later dynasties.
I Ching: The I Ching, also known as the Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese text used for divination and philosophical reflection. It is one of the oldest Chinese classics and reflects the development of Chinese writing from oracle bones to complex characters, serving as a crucial link between divination practices and early Chinese literature.
Ideographs: Ideographs are symbols or characters that represent ideas or concepts, rather than specific sounds or words. In the context of Chinese writing, ideographs form a significant part of the characters used, allowing for the representation of complex thoughts and cultural concepts in a visual form. This connection to ideas makes ideographs fundamental to understanding the evolution of Chinese characters from their origins in oracle bone script to their modern usage.
Li si: Li si refers to the concept of 'benefit and loss' in the context of Chinese writing and culture. It signifies the understanding of how written characters not only convey meaning but also hold significance in terms of their impact on society, culture, and individual relationships. The development of li si highlights the evolving nature of Chinese writing from its early forms, such as oracle bones, to more complex characters used in literature and philosophy, illustrating how writing serves as a medium for both communication and cultural identity.
Literacy: Literacy refers to the ability to read and write, which is foundational for communication and the transmission of culture. In the context of Chinese writing, literacy developed alongside the evolution of writing systems from oracle bones to complex characters, impacting education, social status, and governance throughout history.
Logical Aggregates: Logical aggregates refer to the method of combining smaller components or ideas to form a cohesive whole within a written text. In the context of Chinese writing, especially from oracle bones to characters, this concept illustrates how individual strokes and radicals can come together to create more complex characters, enabling deeper expression and meaning in the language.
Logographic: Logographic refers to a writing system in which each symbol represents a word or a meaningful unit of language rather than a sound. In the context of Chinese writing, this means that each character can convey an idea or concept directly, making it distinct from alphabetic systems that represent sounds. This unique feature allows for a rich and nuanced way to express language through visual symbols.
Oracle bone script: Oracle bone script is one of the earliest forms of Chinese writing, originating during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE). It was used for divination and inscribing questions on bones or turtle shells, which were then heated until they cracked. The resulting cracks were interpreted to provide answers, and the inscriptions marked the earliest known examples of Chinese characters, showcasing a significant step in the evolution of writing in Chinese culture.
Phonetic: Phonetic refers to a system of sounds used in spoken language that relates to the representation of speech sounds in writing. In the context of Chinese writing, phonetic elements are crucial as they help indicate the pronunciation of characters, which is important for understanding and communicating the meaning behind them. This aspect is essential for learners and speakers alike, as it bridges the gap between the visual representation of characters and their spoken form.
Phonetic Loans: Phonetic loans are words borrowed from one language and adapted to the phonetic system of another, often preserving the original pronunciation as closely as possible. In the context of Chinese writing, these loans illustrate how new concepts and items were integrated into the language, especially as it evolved from oracle bones to more complex characters. Phonetic loans demonstrate a significant method of expanding the Chinese lexicon while allowing for cultural exchange and linguistic adaptation.
Phono-semantic compounds: Phono-semantic compounds are a type of Chinese character formation that combines both phonetic and semantic components to convey meaning and pronunciation. This method enhances the efficiency of character recognition and pronunciation, as it allows readers to deduce both the sound and the meaning of the character based on its parts. These compounds played a crucial role in the development of Chinese writing, particularly as the language evolved from the use of oracle bones to the more complex system of characters used today.
Pictographs: Pictographs are visual symbols that represent objects, concepts, or ideas through images that resemble what they stand for. This form of writing is essential in understanding the development of Chinese writing as it reflects the earliest attempts to convey meaning through simple drawings, evolving from oracle bones to more complex characters over time.
Qin Dynasty Standardization: Qin Dynasty Standardization refers to the series of reforms implemented during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) aimed at unifying various aspects of society, including writing, measurements, and currency. These changes were crucial for establishing centralized control and facilitating communication across the vast territories of the newly unified China, directly impacting the development of Chinese writing from oracle bones to standardized characters.
Regular Script: Regular script, known as 'Kaishu' in Chinese, is a standardized style of Chinese writing that became prominent during the Tang dynasty and is still widely used today. It features clear and easily recognizable characters, making it the most common form of writing for printed materials and formal documents. This style developed from earlier forms of calligraphy and was influenced by the need for legibility and consistency in written communication.
Seal script: Seal script is an ancient form of Chinese writing that originated during the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) and became prominent in later dynasties. It is characterized by its curvilinear and stylized characters, often used for inscriptions on seals and official documents. This script played a crucial role in the evolution of Chinese characters, bridging the gap between earlier forms of writing like oracle bone script and the more standardized scripts that followed.
Semi-cursive script: Semi-cursive script is a style of Chinese calligraphy that serves as a bridge between regular script and cursive script, characterized by its fluid, connected strokes while still maintaining some legibility. This script emerged during the Tang dynasty and became popular for both artistic expression and practical writing, reflecting the evolution of Chinese characters from rigid forms to more dynamic styles.
Simplification: Simplification refers to the process of reducing the complexity of characters in written Chinese, making them easier to learn and use. This practice emerged particularly in the 20th century as a response to the challenges of literacy, aiming to make reading and writing more accessible to the general population. The shift from traditional to simplified characters reflects broader cultural and educational reforms within society.
Standardization: Standardization refers to the process of establishing and enforcing consistent norms or criteria across a system, which in the context of Chinese writing, encompasses the uniformity in the form and usage of characters. This practice emerged as a necessity for effective communication and record-keeping throughout the vast regions of ancient China. As different regions developed their own variations of characters, standardization helped unify these diverse writing systems, facilitating administration, trade, and cultural exchange.
Wen: The term 'wen' translates to 'literature' or 'culture' in English, and encompasses a broad array of artistic and intellectual expressions in Chinese civilization. It plays a crucial role in understanding literary theory and criticism, Chinese literary aesthetics, and the development of Chinese writing. 'Wen' embodies the values of refinement and education, influencing how literature was created, critiqued, and appreciated throughout history.
Zi: In the context of Chinese writing, 'zi' refers to the character or symbol used to represent a word or concept. This term is crucial for understanding the evolution of Chinese characters, which developed from early forms such as oracle bone script into the complex logographic system used today. 'Zi' embodies not just the physical symbols but also the underlying linguistic and cultural significance these characters hold in Chinese history.
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