📜Intro to Premodern Chinese Literature Unit 2 – Early Chinese Writing and Literature Origins

Historical Context

• Ancient China developed a rich literary tradition that spans over 3,000 years
• Early Chinese literature emerged during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) and flourished during the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046-256 BCE)
• The development of writing systems played a crucial role in the preservation and transmission of literary works
• Chinese literature was closely tied to the political, social, and cultural changes throughout history
• Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism had a significant influence on the themes and values expressed in Chinese literature
• The invention of paper during the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) revolutionized the dissemination of written works
• Chinese literature served various purposes, including historical record-keeping, philosophical discourse, and artistic expression

Early Writing Systems

• The earliest known Chinese writing system is the oracle bone script, used during the Shang Dynasty
• Oracle bone script was written on turtle shells and animal bones for divination purposes
• Bronze inscriptions, found on ritual vessels and weapons, emerged during the late Shang and early Zhou Dynasties
• The seal script, characterized by its rounded and symmetrical characters, developed during the Zhou Dynasty and became the standard script for official documents
• The clerical script, a more simplified and standardized form of writing, emerged during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) and became widely used in the Han Dynasty
• The regular script, which is the basis for modern Chinese characters, developed during the Han Dynasty and became the standard for printing and handwriting
• The cursive script, a more fluid and expressive form of writing, gained popularity among scholars and artists during the Jin Dynasty (266-420 CE)

Oracle Bone Inscriptions

• Oracle bone inscriptions are the earliest known form of Chinese writing, dating back to the Shang Dynasty
• These inscriptions were carved on turtle shells and animal bones, primarily ox scapulae
• The Shang people used oracle bones for divination purposes, seeking answers from ancestors and deities
  • The divination process involved applying heat to the bones, causing them to crack, and interpreting the patterns of the cracks
• Oracle bone inscriptions provide valuable insights into Shang society, including political structure, religious beliefs, and daily life
• The inscriptions often record the date, the diviner's name, and the question asked during the divination process
• Many oracle bone inscriptions are fragmentary, making decipherment and interpretation challenging for scholars
• The discovery of oracle bones in 1899 at the Shang capital of Yinxu (modern-day Anyang, Henan Province) was a groundbreaking moment in the study of ancient Chinese history and writing

Bronze Inscriptions

• Bronze inscriptions, found on ritual vessels and weapons, emerged during the late Shang and early Zhou Dynasties
• These inscriptions were cast into the bronze objects using molds, rather than being carved like oracle bone inscriptions
• Bronze inscriptions often commemorate important events, such as military victories, royal appointments, or ancestral sacrifices
• The content of bronze inscriptions includes dedications, prayers, and records of lineages and genealogies
• The language used in bronze inscriptions is more formulaic and stylized compared to oracle bone inscriptions
• Bronze inscriptions provide valuable information about the political, social, and religious practices of the Shang and Zhou Dynasties
• The study of bronze inscriptions has contributed to the understanding of the development of Chinese writing and the evolution of Chinese characters

Development of Classical Chinese

• Classical Chinese, also known as literary Chinese, emerged during the late Zhou Dynasty and became the standard written language for over 2,000 years
• Classical Chinese is characterized by its concise and often ambiguous grammar, lack of punctuation, and the use of literary devices such as parallelism and allusion
• The Analects of Confucius, compiled during the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), is one of the earliest and most influential works written in Classical Chinese
• The Qin Dynasty's standardization of writing and the Han Dynasty's adoption of Confucianism as the state ideology contributed to the widespread use of Classical Chinese
• Classical Chinese served as the lingua franca for scholars, officials, and literati across East Asia, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• The ability to read and write Classical Chinese was a marker of education and social status in premodern East Asian societies
• Classical Chinese continued to be used for formal writing, even as vernacular languages and writing styles developed in later periods

Key Literary Forms

• Poetry was one of the most important and enduring literary forms in ancient China
  • The Book of Songs, a collection of 305 poems compiled during the Zhou Dynasty, is the earliest known anthology of Chinese poetry
  • The fu, a form of rhapsodic poetry that combines prose and verse, emerged during the Han Dynasty and was used for descriptive and expressive purposes
• Historical writing, such as the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) by Sima Qian (c. 145-86 BCE), documented the events and figures of the past and served as models for later historiographical works
• Philosophical texts, such as the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) and the Zhuangzi, expounded on the principles of Taoism and influenced Chinese thought and literature for centuries
• Confucian classics, including the Analects, the Mencius, and the Five Classics, formed the basis of Chinese education and shaped the moral and political discourse in premodern China
• Prose works, such as the Zuozhuan (Zuo Commentary) and the Guoyu (Discourses of the States), provided historical and philosophical narratives and served as models for later prose writing
• Encyclopedias and leishu (categorized books) compiled vast amounts of knowledge from various fields and served as important reference works for scholars and officials

Influential Texts and Authors

• The Analects of Confucius, compiled by his disciples, is a collection of sayings and dialogues that form the foundation of Confucian thought and ethics
• Laozi, the legendary author of the Daodejing, is considered the founder of Taoism and his work emphasizes the principles of simplicity, spontaneity, and harmony with nature
• Zhuangzi, another key figure in Taoism, is known for his eponymous work that features philosophical parables and anecdotes that challenge conventional wisdom and promote individual freedom
• Sima Qian, the grand historian of the Han Dynasty, authored the Shiji, a monumental work that covers the history of China from the mythical Yellow Emperor to the Han Dynasty
• Cao Cao, Cao Pi, and Cao Zhi, the father-and-sons trio of the late Han and Three Kingdoms period, were renowned poets and literary figures who contributed to the development of the jian'an style of poetry
• Tao Yuanming (365-427 CE), one of the most celebrated poets of the Six Dynasties period, is known for his pastoral poems that express his love for nature and his reclusive lifestyle
• Li Bai (701-762 CE) and Du Fu (712-770 CE), the two most famous poets of the Tang Dynasty, are revered for their innovative and expressive works that capture the spirit of their time

Cultural Impact and Legacy

• Early Chinese literature laid the foundation for the development of Chinese civilization and shaped the cultural identity of the Chinese people
• The themes, values, and aesthetics expressed in early Chinese literature, such as the emphasis on harmony, balance, and moral cultivation, have endured throughout Chinese history
• The Confucian classics became the basis for the imperial examination system, which selected officials based on their mastery of classical texts and served as a vehicle for social mobility in premodern China
• The influence of early Chinese literature extended beyond China, as works such as the Analects and the Daodejing were translated and studied in other East Asian countries, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam
• The literary forms and techniques developed in early Chinese literature, such as the use of allusion, parallelism, and tonal patterns, continued to be used and refined in later periods
• The study of early Chinese literature has been an important field of sinology, attracting scholars from around the world who seek to understand the roots of Chinese civilization
• The legacy of early Chinese literature is evident in the continued relevance and appreciation of classical texts, as well as in the works of modern and contemporary Chinese writers who draw inspiration from the literary traditions of the past