🌎Intro to Native American Studies Unit 7 – Native American Activism & Self-Determination

Historical Context

• Native American activism rooted in centuries of resistance to colonization, forced relocation (Trail of Tears), and assimilation policies
• Reservation system established in the late 19th century restricted tribal sovereignty and access to traditional lands
• Boarding schools aimed to eradicate Native cultures and languages by forcibly removing children from their families (Carlisle Indian Industrial School)
• Termination policies of the 1950s sought to end federal recognition of tribes and dismantle reservations
  • Led to loss of land, resources, and cultural identity for many tribes (Menominee, Klamath)
• American Indian Movement (AIM) founded in 1968 to address poverty, police brutality, and systemic discrimination faced by urban Native Americans
  • Organized high-profile protests and occupations (Alcatraz Island, Wounded Knee) to draw attention to Native rights issues
• Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 marked a shift towards greater tribal control over federal programs and services

Key Figures and Movements

• Vine Deloria Jr., Standing Rock Sioux author and activist, advocated for Native sovereignty and challenged stereotypes in his influential book "Custer Died for Your Sins" (1969)
• Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt co-founded the American Indian Movement (AIM) to address urban Native issues and promote cultural pride
• Russell Means, Oglala Lakota activist, led AIM's occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973 to protest government corruption and demand treaty rights
• Women of All Red Nations (WARN) formed in 1974 to address issues affecting Native women, such as forced sterilization and domestic violence
• Winona LaDuke, Anishinaabe activist and environmentalist, co-founded Indigenous Women's Network and ran for Vice President on the Green Party ticket in 1996 and 2000
  • Advocates for sustainable development, renewable energy, and protection of sacred sites
• Idle No More movement began in Canada in 2012 to protest legislation that weakened environmental protections and infringed on Indigenous rights
  • Spread to the United States and inspired solidarity actions, round dances, and social media campaigns (#IdleNoMore)

Legal Battles and Treaties

• Native American tribes have inherent sovereignty as nations that pre-date the United States, recognized in the Constitution and early treaties
• Marshall Trilogy of Supreme Court cases in the 1820s-1830s established the legal framework for tribal sovereignty and the federal trust responsibility
  • Described tribes as "domestic dependent nations" with a special relationship to the U.S. government
• Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 ended allotment, restored some tribal lands, and encouraged tribes to adopt constitutions and establish governments
• Termination policies of the 1950s (House Concurrent Resolution 108, Public Law 280) sought to end federal recognition of tribes and transfer jurisdiction to states
  • Resulted in loss of land, resources, and cultural identity for over 100 tribes
• Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 extended most of the Bill of Rights to tribal governments, balancing individual rights with tribal sovereignty
• Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 requires federal agencies and institutions to return Native cultural items and human remains
  • Has led to the repatriation of thousands of ancestral remains and sacred objects

Cultural Preservation Efforts

• Revitalization of Native languages through immersion schools, language nests, and master-apprentice programs
  • Examples include the Navajo Nation's Diné College and the Hawai'ian language preschools (Pūnana Leo)
• Preservation of traditional knowledge, such as ecological practices, medicinal plants, and oral histories
  • Intertribal Gatherings promote the sharing of cultural knowledge and practices across generations
• Repatriation of sacred objects and ancestral remains under NAGPRA has restored cultural patrimony to tribes
  • Smithsonian Institution has returned over 6,000 individuals and 250,000 funerary objects to tribes
• Reclamation of traditional foods and agricultural practices to promote health, food sovereignty, and cultural identity
  • Examples include the Tohono O'odham Community Action (TOCA) and the Indigenous Seed Keepers Network
• Celebration of Native art, music, and literature as forms of cultural expression and resistance
  • Annual events like the Santa Fe Indian Market and the Heard Museum Guild Indian Fair & Market showcase contemporary Native artists
• Incorporation of Native perspectives and histories into mainstream education through curriculum development and teacher training programs

Modern Activism Strategies

• Social media campaigns and hashtag activism to raise awareness of Native issues and mobilize support (#NoDAPL, #NotYourMascot)
• Divestment movements pressuring institutions to withdraw investments from fossil fuel companies and projects that harm Indigenous communities
  • Example: Divest, Invest, Protect campaign targeting banks funding the Dakota Access Pipeline
• Alliance-building with other marginalized groups and social justice movements to address intersecting issues of racism, environmental justice, and human rights
  • Example: Black Hills Alliance opposing uranium mining in South Dakota in the 1970s-80s
• Youth-led movements and organizations empowering the next generation of Native leaders and activists
  • Examples: Indigenous Youth Council, Native Youth Leadership Alliance, and the United National Indian Tribal Youth (UNITY)
• Direct action and civil disobedience to protest environmental threats, treaty violations, and cultural appropriation
  • Examples: Keystone XL pipeline protests, Mauna Kea telescope opposition, and Washington NFL team name change campaign
• Participation in electoral politics and voter mobilization efforts to increase Native representation and influence policy decisions
  • Examples: Native American Voting Rights Coalition, Four Directions, and the Indigenous Peoples' Caucus at the UN

Sovereignty and Self-Governance

• Tribes exercise inherent sovereignty through self-government, law enforcement, and management of natural resources on tribal lands
• Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 affirmed tribal authority to operate casinos and gaming enterprises, generating revenue for economic development and social services
  • Examples: Foxwoods Resort Casino (Mashantucket Pequot) and Seminole Hard Rock Hotel & Casino
• Tribal courts and justice systems incorporate traditional values and restorative practices, such as peacemaking circles and sentencing circles
  • Example: Navajo Nation Peacemaker Courts blending traditional dispute resolution with modern legal principles
• Co-management agreements and government-to-government consultation enable tribes to participate in decision-making processes affecting their lands, resources, and cultural heritage
  • Examples: Bears Ears National Monument (Utah) and the Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission
• Economic diversification initiatives, such as renewable energy projects, sustainable tourism, and cultural heritage sites, promote self-sufficiency and cultural preservation
  • Examples: Osage Nation's wind farm and the Chickasaw Nation's cultural center and resort
• Intertribal organizations and alliances, such as the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) and the United South and Eastern Tribes (USET), advocate for collective interests and policy priorities

Impact on Policy and Society

• Increased public awareness and understanding of Native American history, cultures, and contemporary issues through education, media, and cultural events
• Greater recognition of tribal sovereignty and the government-to-government relationship between tribes and federal agencies
  • Executive Order 13175 (2000) requires federal agencies to consult with tribes on policies that affect them
• Expansion of Native American studies programs and research centers in higher education institutions
  • Examples: UCLA's American Indian Studies Center and the University of Arizona's Native Nations Institute
• Inclusion of Native voices and perspectives in public discourse, policy debates, and decision-making processes
  • Example: First-ever Native American presidential forum held in 2019 with several Democratic candidates
• Advancement of environmental justice and protection of sacred sites through legal challenges, public pressure, and collaborative management approaches
  • Examples: Standing Rock Sioux Tribe's opposition to the Dakota Access Pipeline and the Bears Ears Inter-Tribal Coalition's advocacy for the national monument
• Increased representation of Native Americans in elected office at the local, state, and federal levels
  • Examples: Deb Haaland (Laguna Pueblo) as the first Native American Cabinet secretary and Sharice Davids (Ho-Chunk) as one of the first Native American women in Congress

Ongoing Challenges and Future Directions

• Persistent disparities in health, education, and economic outcomes between Native American communities and the general U.S. population
  • Native Americans have higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and chronic diseases compared to other racial/ethnic groups
• Continued threats to tribal sovereignty and cultural heritage from resource extraction, infrastructure projects, and federal policy changes
  • Examples: Proposed oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the Trump administration's downsizing of Bears Ears National Monument
• Need for greater funding and support for Native American education, healthcare, housing, and social services
  • Chronic underfunding of the Indian Health Service and the Bureau of Indian Education
• Ongoing efforts to revitalize Native languages and preserve cultural knowledge in the face of assimilation pressures and generational trauma
  • Estimated 90% of Native American languages are at risk of disappearing by 2050
• Challenges in balancing economic development with environmental protection and cultural preservation on tribal lands
  • Examples: Navajo Nation's transition from coal-based economy and the Lummi Nation's opposition to a proposed coal terminal
• Importance of building alliances and solidarity with other Indigenous peoples and social justice movements around the world
  • Example: Indigenous resistance to the Keystone XL pipeline in the U.S. and Canada and the Belo Monte dam in Brazil
• Continued advocacy for the full implementation of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) and other international human rights standards
  • U.S. endorsed UNDRIP in 2010 but has yet to fully implement its provisions on free, prior, and informed consent and self-determination