Glossary

6.2 Boarding schools and forced assimilation

4 min read•august 9, 2024

Boarding schools were a dark chapter in Native . The U.S. government used them to forcibly assimilate Native children, tearing them from their families and cultures. These schools aimed to erase Native identities and replace them with European-American values and practices.

The impacts of boarding schools still echo through Native communities today. Generations faced trauma, , and disconnection from their heritage. Recent years have seen growing efforts to address this painful legacy through healing, , and calls for accountability.

Establishment and Goals of Boarding Schools

Carlisle Indian Industrial School and Its Founder

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  • founded in 1879 by
  • Pratt developed the school's philosophy ""
  • School aimed to assimilate Native American children into mainstream American culture
  • Served as model for numerous other Indian boarding schools across the United States
  • Students forcibly removed from their families and tribal communities
  • Children prohibited from speaking native languages or practicing traditional customs

Assimilation Policies and Practices

  • Boarding schools part of broader U.S. government assimilation policies
  • Policies designed to eradicate Native American cultures and traditions
  • Schools focused on and manual labor
  • Curriculum emphasized English language, Christianity, and American customs
  • Students subjected to strict and regimentation
  • Native American children given English names and Western-style haircuts
  • Traditional clothing replaced with European-American style uniforms

Educational Approach and Daily Life

  • Students taught basic academic subjects (reading, writing, arithmetic)
  • Emphasis on practical skills (farming, carpentry, sewing) for boys and girls respectively
  • Daily schedules rigidly structured with limited free time
  • Harsh punishments administered for speaking native languages or practicing cultural traditions
  • "" placed students with white families during summers for further assimilation
  • Limited contact with families and home communities to reinforce
  • High rates of illness and mortality due to poor living conditions and inadequate healthcare

Suppression of Native Culture and Identity

Cultural Genocide Through Education

  • Boarding schools systematically erased Native American cultural practices
  • Children forbidden from wearing traditional clothing or hairstyles
  • Native spiritual beliefs and practices actively discouraged or prohibited
  • , crafts, and music replaced with European-American equivalents
  • Tribal histories and oral traditions not taught, replaced with American history
  • Students indoctrinated with ideas of Native inferiority and white superiority
  • Cultural loss accelerated as children became disconnected from tribal knowledge and customs

Language Suppression and Its Consequences

  • Native languages banned in boarding schools, considered "savage" and uncivilized
  • Children punished severely for speaking their native tongues (physical abuse, mouth washing with soap)
  • led to rapid decline in fluency of indigenous languages
  • Many Native languages became endangered or extinct due to
  • Loss of language impacted and traditional knowledge systems
  • Created communication barriers between boarding school students and their families/elders

Forced Christianity and Religious Indoctrination

  • central to boarding school curriculum
  • Native spiritual practices labeled as pagan or devil worship
  • Students required to attend church services and religious instruction
  • Christian names often given to replace traditional Native names
  • Religious conversion seen as key to "civilizing" Native Americans
  • Traditional Native spiritual leaders and practices criminalized on reservations
  • Syncretic religious practices developed as some Natives blended Christianity with traditional beliefs

Long-term Impact and Reconciliation

Intergenerational Trauma and Cultural Loss

  • Boarding school experiences created lasting psychological trauma for survivors
  • Trauma passed down through generations, affecting family dynamics and parenting
  • Loss of cultural identity led to high rates of substance abuse, suicide, and mental health issues
  • Disrupted traditional family structures and community bonds
  • Many survivors struggled to reconnect with their Native cultures and languages
  • Boarding school legacy contributed to ongoing socioeconomic challenges in Native communities
  • Cultural revitalization movements emerged to reclaim lost traditions and languages

Residential Schools in Canada and Comparative Impact

  • Canadian residential school system paralleled U.S. boarding schools
  • Operated from 1880s to 1996, run by churches and federal government
  • Similar goals of forced assimilation and cultural eradication
  • High rates of physical and sexual abuse documented in Canadian schools
  • established to address legacy (2008-2015)
  • Discovery of unmarked graves at former residential school sites sparked national reckoning
  • Canadian government issued formal apology and reparations to survivors in 2008

Efforts Towards Reconciliation and Healing

  • U.S. government issued apology for boarding school policies in 2009 (not widely publicized)
  • formed to address boarding school legacy
  • Increased focus on preserving and revitalizing Native languages and cultural practices
  • Some former boarding schools transformed into tribal colleges or cultural centers
  • Growing awareness and acknowledgment of boarding school history in mainstream education
  • Calls for federal investigation into U.S. boarding school sites and potential unmarked graves
  • Ongoing debates about reparations and appropriate forms of reconciliation for boarding school survivors and their descendants

Key Terms to Review (25)

American History: American history refers to the comprehensive narrative of the past events, peoples, cultures, and social changes that have shaped the United States from its origins to the present day. It encompasses the experiences and histories of various groups, particularly Indigenous peoples, and explores the impact of colonization, expansion, and policies that sought to assimilate Native American communities into mainstream society.
Carlisle Indian Industrial School: The Carlisle Indian Industrial School was the first federally funded off-reservation boarding school for Native American students, established in 1879 in Pennsylvania. Its primary aim was to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture by providing education and vocational training, while eradicating their indigenous identities and languages. The school became a model for similar institutions across the United States, representing a significant part of the broader effort to enforce cultural assimilation and control over Native American populations.
Christian education: Christian education refers to the teaching and learning process grounded in Christian principles and beliefs, aimed at fostering spiritual, moral, and intellectual growth. This form of education often emphasizes the importance of biblical teachings and the integration of faith into all areas of life, including personal conduct, ethics, and community involvement. The context of Christian education is particularly relevant when considering its role in boarding schools where forced assimilation took place, as these institutions sought to replace Indigenous cultures with Euro-American values and religious beliefs.
Cultural genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the systematic destruction of a group's cultural heritage and identity, often carried out through policies and actions that aim to erase the cultural practices, languages, and beliefs of a targeted community. This term highlights the ways in which dominant societies seek to eliminate the cultural expressions of marginalized groups, leading to profound and lasting impacts on those communities.
Cultural loss: Cultural loss refers to the erosion or disappearance of a community's cultural practices, languages, traditions, and identities, often as a result of colonization, assimilation policies, or societal changes. This phenomenon can lead to a disconnect between generations and a sense of dislocation for individuals within the affected communities. Understanding cultural loss is essential to recognize the long-term impacts on Native communities, including their health and well-being.
Cultural Revitalization: Cultural revitalization refers to the process of reawakening, restoring, and maintaining cultural practices, traditions, and languages that may have been diminished or suppressed, especially in the context of colonization and assimilation. This term is important as it emphasizes the active efforts of communities to reclaim and strengthen their cultural identity and heritage in response to historical injustices and ongoing challenges.
Cultural Separation: Cultural separation refers to the deliberate distancing and division between different cultural or social groups, often resulting from policies or practices aimed at assimilation or exclusion. In many cases, this term highlights the impact of historical actions that sought to erase indigenous cultures and languages, forcing them into a framework dominated by the dominant culture. The historical context often involves systemic measures, such as education and legislation, that disrupt traditional practices and beliefs, further entrenching divisions between cultures.
Cultural transmission: Cultural transmission is the process by which knowledge, beliefs, values, and practices are passed from one generation to another within a culture. This includes the ways in which traditions, language, and social norms are shared and maintained over time. The effectiveness of cultural transmission can significantly influence the survival and adaptation of cultural identities, especially in contexts where external pressures threaten to erase them.
English-only policies: English-only policies are regulations or laws that mandate the use of English as the exclusive language in various contexts, such as education, government, and public services. These policies were often implemented to enforce linguistic assimilation among non-English speaking populations, particularly Indigenous peoples, as part of broader efforts to erase cultural identities and promote a singular national identity.
Generational language loss: Generational language loss refers to the phenomenon where a language is no longer spoken fluently by younger generations, often due to cultural and societal pressures that lead to the adoption of a dominant language. This loss can severely impact cultural identity, as language is a crucial element in the transmission of traditions, stories, and values from one generation to another. The process is often exacerbated by policies and practices that promote assimilation, resulting in diminished use of indigenous languages in favor of mainstream languages.
Identity erasure: Identity erasure refers to the systematic removal or suppression of an individual's or group's cultural, personal, and social identity. This often occurs through policies and practices that seek to assimilate people into a dominant culture, leading to the loss of unique traditions, languages, and ways of life. Such practices can have profound psychological and social impacts, particularly when they target marginalized communities.
Indian Boarding School Era: The Indian Boarding School Era refers to a period in U.S. history, primarily from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, during which Native American children were forcibly removed from their families and communities to attend government-run boarding schools. The intent behind these institutions was to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-American culture by erasing their languages, traditions, and identities, effectively aiming to ‘civilize’ them according to Western standards.
Intergenerational trauma: Intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological and emotional effects of trauma that are passed down from one generation to the next. This phenomenon is especially relevant in communities that have experienced systemic oppression, cultural loss, and historical injustices, leading to lasting impacts on mental health, identity, and community well-being.
Kill the indian, save the man: The phrase 'kill the Indian, save the man' reflects the ideology behind the forced assimilation of Native Americans into Euro-American culture during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It symbolizes the belief that Indigenous cultural identity needed to be eradicated to successfully integrate Native individuals into mainstream American society. This concept justified the establishment of boarding schools aimed at suppressing Indigenous languages, traditions, and ways of life in favor of European American values.
Language suppression: Language suppression refers to the deliberate act of restricting or prohibiting the use of a particular language, often as a means of cultural domination or assimilation. This practice can involve policies that favor a dominant language while undermining or erasing minority languages, leading to a loss of cultural identity and heritage among affected groups. In many instances, language suppression has been linked to broader efforts aimed at eradicating indigenous cultures and forcing assimilation into a dominant society.
Manual labor education: Manual labor education refers to an educational system that emphasizes the importance of physical work alongside traditional academic subjects. This approach was particularly evident in boarding schools for Native American students, where the goal was to assimilate them into Euro-American culture by teaching them practical skills while also imposing Western ideals about work and education.
Military-style discipline: Military-style discipline refers to a strict and regimented approach to behavior and conduct, often characterized by a focus on obedience, conformity, and adherence to rules. In the context of boarding schools for Native American children, this form of discipline was implemented as part of a broader strategy for forced assimilation, aimed at erasing Indigenous identities and instilling Euro-American values and norms.
Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition: The Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition is an organization dedicated to addressing the historical trauma and ongoing impacts of the U.S. government’s boarding school policies that aimed to assimilate Native American children. The coalition works towards healing by fostering awareness, supporting survivors, and advocating for justice and reparations related to the injustices experienced in these institutions.
Outing system: The outing system was a practice used primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where Native American children from boarding schools were placed in the homes of non-Native families for labor and education. This system aimed to further assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-American culture while separating them from their families and communities. The outings were seen as a way to expose these children to white society, often undermining their cultural identity and traditional values.
Pagan worship: Pagan worship refers to the religious practices and beliefs of polytheistic or nature-based religions that existed prior to the spread of Christianity and other monotheistic faiths. This form of worship often involves the veneration of multiple deities, the celebration of seasonal cycles, and a deep connection to the earth and natural elements. It was viewed negatively by colonizers and missionaries, which led to efforts to suppress these practices in favor of Christian beliefs, particularly during periods of forced assimilation.
Residential Schools in Canada: Residential schools in Canada were government-sponsored religious schools established to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. These institutions aimed to erase Indigenous languages, traditions, and identities, leading to a devastating impact on Indigenous communities across the country.
Richard Henry Pratt: Richard Henry Pratt was a United States Army officer and educator, best known for founding the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in 1879. He advocated for the forced assimilation of Native American children into Euro-American culture through education, believing that this was the solution to the so-called 'Indian problem.' His approach included the belief that Native Americans could be 'civilized' by stripping them of their cultural identities and promoting Western values.
Traditional arts: Traditional arts refer to the creative expressions and cultural practices that are passed down through generations, often reflecting the history, beliefs, and values of a community. These art forms encompass various mediums such as visual arts, music, dance, and crafts, playing a crucial role in the preservation of cultural identity and heritage, especially in the context of historical events like forced assimilation.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was established in 2008 to address the legacy of the residential school system and its impact on Indigenous peoples. The TRC aimed to document the experiences of survivors, promote healing, and provide recommendations for actions to foster reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Canadians. This initiative was a crucial step towards acknowledging the injustices faced by Indigenous communities due to forced assimilation policies.
Vocational training: Vocational training is a form of education that focuses on equipping individuals with specific skills and knowledge for particular trades or occupations. This type of training often emphasizes hands-on experience and practical applications, preparing learners for direct entry into the workforce. It plays a significant role in helping individuals gain employability skills, particularly in contexts where traditional academic pathways may not be as accessible or relevant.
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