🧿Intro to Literary Theory Unit 3 – Structuralism & Semiotics in Literary Theory

Key Concepts

• Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures and patterns within literary texts rather than focusing on the author's intentions or historical context
• Language is seen as a system of signs (semiotics) that convey meaning through their relationships and differences within the system
• Binary oppositions are fundamental to structuralist analysis, exploring contrasting elements (life/death, good/evil) that shape meaning
• Narratology, the study of narrative structures, examines common patterns and functions across different stories and genres
  • Includes concepts like plot, character archetypes, and narrative perspective
• Intertextuality refers to the connections and influences between texts, highlighting how meaning is shaped by the larger literary system
• Structuralism aims to uncover universal structures of human thought and experience as expressed through literature
• The role of the reader is minimized, as meaning is seen as inherent within the text itself rather than created through interpretation

Historical Context

• Structuralism emerged in the early 20th century, drawing from the work of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and his theory of semiotics
• The approach gained prominence in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in France, as a reaction against the subjectivity of previous literary theories
• Structuralism was influenced by developments in anthropology, particularly the work of Claude Lévi-Strauss, who applied structural analysis to myths and cultural systems
• The rise of structuralism coincided with the growth of formalism in literary criticism, which emphasized the formal elements of texts over their content or context
• Structuralism's focus on language and signs was part of a broader "linguistic turn" in the humanities and social sciences during this period
• The approach was later challenged by post-structuralism, which questioned the stability of meaning and the existence of universal structures
• Despite critiques, structuralism had a lasting impact on literary theory and continues to inform contemporary approaches to textual analysis

Major Thinkers

• Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), a Swiss linguist, laid the foundations for structuralism with his theory of semiotics and the arbitrary nature of the sign
• Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009), a French anthropologist, applied structural analysis to myths and cultural systems, influencing the development of structuralist literary theory
• Roman Jakobson (1896-1982), a Russian linguist and literary theorist, developed the concept of the "poetic function" of language and contributed to the structuralist analysis of poetry
• Roland Barthes (1915-1980), a French literary theorist, expanded the application of structuralism to various cultural phenomena, including literature, fashion, and advertising
  • Barthes introduced concepts like the "death of the author" and the "readerly" vs. "writerly" text
• Tzvetan Todorov (1939-2017), a Bulgarian-French literary theorist, developed the concept of narratology and applied structuralist principles to the study of genre and narrative structures
• Algirdas Julien Greimas (1917-1992), a Lithuanian-French semiotician, created the "semiotic square" as a tool for analyzing the deep structure of narratives and meaning
• Jonathan Culler (1944-), an American literary theorist, has been instrumental in introducing and explaining structuralist concepts to English-speaking audiences

Linguistic Foundations

• Structuralism is rooted in Ferdinand de Saussure's theory of semiotics, which studies signs and their role in creating meaning
• Saussure distinguished between the signifier (the form of a sign, such as a word) and the signified (the concept or meaning associated with the signifier)
• The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary, meaning there is no inherent connection between a word and its meaning
• Language is seen as a system of differences, where the meaning of a sign is determined by its relationship to other signs within the system
  • For example, the meaning of "cat" is defined by its difference from other related signs like "dog" or "bird"
• Saussure also distinguished between langue (the abstract system of language) and parole (individual instances of language use)
• Structuralists focus on langue, the underlying structures and rules of language, rather than parole, the specific utterances of individual speakers
• The linguistic foundations of structuralism emphasize the social and conventional nature of meaning, rather than the intentions of individual language users

Literary Applications

• Structuralist literary theory applies the principles of semiotics and structural linguistics to the analysis of literary texts
• Literature is seen as a system of signs, with meaning created through the relationships and oppositions between elements within the text
• Structuralist critics focus on the underlying patterns, structures, and conventions that shape literary works across different genres and time periods
• Binary oppositions are a key tool in structuralist analysis, examining how contrasting elements (light/dark, male/female) create meaning and tension within a text
• Narratology, the study of narrative structures, is a major area of structuralist literary analysis
  • Narratologists examine common plot patterns, character archetypes, and narrative techniques across different stories and genres
• Structuralist approaches also explore the conventions and expectations associated with different literary genres, such as the sonnet or the detective novel
• Intertextuality, the connections and influences between texts, is another important concept in structuralist literary analysis
• Structuralist critics aim to uncover the "grammar" of literature, the deep structures and rules that govern the production and interpretation of literary meaning

Critical Methods

• Structuralist literary analysis begins by identifying the key elements and oppositions within a text, such as characters, settings, and themes
• These elements are then examined in terms of their relationships and differences, revealing the underlying structures that create meaning
• Structuralist critics may create visual diagrams or maps to represent the network of relationships within a text, such as the "semiotic square" developed by A.J. Greimas
• Close reading is a central technique in structuralist analysis, involving careful attention to the specific language and formal features of a text
  • However, structuralists are less interested in the unique qualities of individual texts than in the common patterns and structures they reveal
• Structuralist approaches often involve comparing and contrasting texts within a genre or across different time periods to identify shared conventions and structures
• Structuralist critics may also apply their methods to non-literary texts, such as myths, advertisements, or cultural practices, to uncover the underlying systems of meaning
• While structuralist methods aim for a degree of scientific rigor and objectivity, critics have questioned the assumption that meaning is inherent and stable within the text itself

Examples in Literature

• In his analysis of Balzac's "Sarrasine," Roland Barthes demonstrates how the novella's meaning is created through a series of binary oppositions, such as youth/age and innocence/experience
• Tzvetan Todorov's study of the detective novel genre reveals a common narrative structure involving the disruption and restoration of social order through the solution of a crime
• Claude Lévi-Strauss's analysis of the Oedipus myth highlights the recurring pattern of binary oppositions (nature/culture, youth/age) that structure the story across different versions and cultures
• Vladimir Propp's examination of Russian folktales identifies 31 common narrative functions and 7 character archetypes, revealing the underlying structure of the genre
  • Propp's work has been influential in the development of narratology and the structuralist study of narrative forms
• Structuralist readings of Shakespeare's sonnets have focused on the formal conventions and thematic oppositions (love/hate, beauty/decay) that shape the meaning of the poems
• Northrop Frye's "Anatomy of Criticism" applies structuralist principles to the study of literary genres and modes, identifying recurring patterns and archetypes across Western literature
• Structuralist approaches have also been applied to non-Western literary traditions, such as the analysis of the "Ramayana" epic in terms of its underlying mythic structures and binary oppositions

Critiques and Limitations

• Post-structuralist thinkers, such as Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, have challenged the structuralist assumption of stable, inherent meaning within texts
  • They argue that meaning is always shifting and dependent on context, and that texts contain contradictions and inconsistencies that undermine the idea of a unified structure
• Structuralism's focus on the text itself has been criticized for neglecting the role of the reader in creating meaning and the historical and cultural contexts in which texts are produced and received
• The emphasis on binary oppositions and universal structures has been seen as reductive and limiting, ignoring the complexity and diversity of literary works and human experience
• Structuralist methods have been accused of being overly formalistic and mechanistic, treating literature as a mere system of signs rather than a product of creative expression and human imagination
• The claim to scientific objectivity in structuralist analysis has been questioned, as critics' own cultural and ideological biases inevitably shape their interpretations
• Structuralism's ahistorical approach has been criticized for ignoring the ways in which literary forms and conventions change over time in response to social and cultural developments
• While structuralism has provided valuable insights into the underlying patterns and structures of literature, its limitations have led to the development of alternative approaches, such as post-structuralism, reader-response theory, and cultural studies