9.1 Historical overview of ethnic and racial activism in the U.S.
4 min read•august 7, 2024
Ethnic and racial activism in the U.S. has a long history of fighting for equality and justice. From to women's suffrage, labor rights to civil rights, various movements have shaped American society and politics.
The 20th century saw major strides in civil rights activism. The , student-led organizations, and ethnic pride movements like Chicano and Black Power pushed for change through protests, legal challenges, and community organizing.
19th and Early 20th Century Movements
Abolitionism and Women's Suffrage
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- Abolitionism was a movement to end slavery in the United States during the 19th century
- Prominent abolitionists included Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and William Lloyd Garrison
- The movement gained momentum with the publication of anti-slavery literature like Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin"
- fought for women's right to vote in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
- Key figures included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul
- The , ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote nationwide
Labor Rights and the NAACP
- Labor Rights Movement advocated for better working conditions, fair wages, and the right to unionize in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
- Notable events included the (1886) and the (1894)
- The movement led to the formation of labor unions like the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
- (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) was founded in 1909 to fight for the civil rights of African Americans
- The organization used legal strategies to challenge segregation and discrimination, such as the landmark Brown v. Board of Education case (1954)
- Notable NAACP leaders included , , and Roy Wilkins
Civil Rights Era Activism
Civil Rights Movement and Student Activism
- Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s fought to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans
- Key events included the (1955-1956), the (1957), and the (1963)
- Prominent leaders included , , and
- (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) was a student-led civil rights organization founded in 1960
- SNCC organized sit-ins, , and voter registration drives to challenge segregation and disenfranchisement
- Notable SNCC members included John Lewis, Diane Nash, and Stokely Carmichael
Direct Action and Protest
- , founded in 1966, was a revolutionary socialist organization that advocated for the rights of African Americans
- The group engaged in community service programs, such as free breakfast for children, and armed self-defense against police brutality
- Prominent Black Panther leaders included Huey P. Newton, Bobby Seale, and Fred Hampton
- Sit-ins were a form of nonviolent direct action protest where activists would occupy segregated spaces and refuse to leave until served or arrested
- The Greensboro sit-ins (1960) at a Woolworth's lunch counter sparked a wave of similar protests across the South
- Freedom Rides, organized by (Congress of Racial Equality) in 1961, challenged segregation in interstate bus travel
- Activists rode buses through the South, facing violence and arrests, to test compliance with the Supreme Court's ruling in Boynton v. Virginia (1960)
- March on Washington, held on August 28, 1963, was a massive demonstration for civil rights that attracted over 200,000 participants
- The event featured Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech and helped build support for the of 1964
Ethnic Pride Movements
Chicano and American Indian Movements
- , also known as the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement, emerged in the 1960s to fight for the rights and of Mexican Americans
- The movement encompassed labor activism, such as the United Farm Workers led by and , and student activism, like the East Los Angeles Walkouts (1968)
- Cultural expressions of Chicano pride included the Chicano art movement and the development of Chicano studies programs in universities
- () was founded in 1968 to advocate for the rights and sovereignty of Native American communities
- AIM engaged in direct action protests, such as the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971) and the Wounded Knee Incident (1973), to draw attention to issues like treaty rights and cultural preservation
- The movement also fought for the repatriation of sacred objects and ancestral remains through the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act () in 1990
Asian American and Black Power Movements
- emerged in the late 1960s to challenge discrimination and stereotypes faced by Asian Americans
- The movement was influenced by the Civil Rights Movement and the anti-Vietnam War movement
- Key events included the (1968-1969) for the establishment of ethnic studies programs and the fight against the eviction of elderly Filipino residents from the International Hotel in San Francisco (1968-1977)
- developed in the mid-1960s as a more militant and self-determinationist approach to the struggle for African American rights
- The movement emphasized , economic empowerment, and self-defense against oppression
- Black Power activists, such as Stokely Carmichael and the Black Panthers, argued for the development of independent black political and economic institutions and the embrace of African and African American cultural heritage
Key Terms to Review (36)
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution granted women the right to vote, officially ratified on August 18, 1920. This landmark change was a significant achievement in the women's suffrage movement and represented a broader struggle for equality and civil rights that intersected with various ethnic and racial activism in the U.S.
Abolitionism: Abolitionism is a social and political movement aimed at ending the institution of slavery and securing equal rights for all people. It emerged in the early 19th century, fueled by moral, humanitarian, and economic arguments against slavery, and became a key force in shaping racial and ethnic activism. The movement not only sought to emancipate enslaved individuals but also worked toward creating a society where racial equality was recognized and upheld.
Aim: In the context of ethnic and racial activism in the U.S., 'aim' refers to the specific goals or objectives that movements strive to achieve in advocating for social justice, equality, and civil rights. These aims often center around issues like dismantling systemic racism, promoting cultural awareness, and ensuring equitable policies that benefit marginalized communities. Understanding the aims helps illuminate the motivations behind various activist movements throughout U.S. history.
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a grassroots organization founded in 1968 to advocate for the rights of Native Americans, addressing issues such as sovereignty, treaty rights, and social justice. AIM emerged as a response to the historical injustices faced by Indigenous peoples and became a significant force in the broader struggle for civil rights and ethnic equality in the United States, particularly during the civil rights era.
Asian American Movement: The Asian American Movement refers to a social and political movement that emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s, advocating for the rights and recognition of Asian Americans in the United States. This movement sought to combat racial discrimination, promote cultural identity, and foster solidarity among various Asian ethnic groups, linking their struggles to broader civil rights issues and social justice efforts.
Black Panthers: The Black Panthers were a revolutionary socialist organization founded in 1966, aimed at addressing systemic injustices and inequalities faced by African Americans. They sought to empower black communities through self-defense, community programs, and anti-capitalist ideology. The group's activism highlighted racial discrimination and police brutality, making them a significant force in the civil rights movement and a symbol of black pride and resistance.
Black Power Movement: The Black Power Movement was a social and political movement that emerged in the 1960s, advocating for racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency, and the right to self-defense for African Americans. It marked a shift from the earlier Civil Rights Movement’s emphasis on integration and nonviolent protest, focusing instead on pride in Black identity and culture, along with the need for systemic change in American society.
Cesar Chavez: Cesar Chavez was a prominent labor leader and civil rights activist who co-founded the United Farm Workers (UFW) and advocated for the rights of farmworkers in the United States. His work focused on improving working conditions, securing better wages, and promoting social justice, making him a key figure in the historical landscape of ethnic and racial activism.
Chicano Movement: The Chicano Movement was a civil rights movement that emerged in the 1960s among Mexican Americans, advocating for social justice, political empowerment, and cultural pride. It aimed to address issues such as discrimination, education reform, labor rights, and land grants, while promoting a sense of identity and solidarity within the Mexican American community.
Civil Rights Act: The Civil Rights Act is a landmark piece of legislation passed in 1964 that aimed to eliminate discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act was crucial in advancing civil rights and ensuring equal access to public accommodations, employment, and education, marking a significant step in the ongoing struggle for social justice and equity in the United States.
Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Movement was a social and political struggle during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans and other marginalized groups in the United States. This movement not only influenced laws and policies but also reshaped the social fabric of America, impacting various ethnic relations and identities.
Core: In the context of ethnic and racial activism, the term 'core' refers to the central principles, values, and experiences that define and unite various ethnic and racial groups in their struggles for equality and justice. These core elements often include shared histories of oppression, cultural identity, and common goals for social change, which serve as a foundation for collective action and mobilization.
Cultural Identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular cultural group, shaped by shared beliefs, values, traditions, language, and experiences. It plays a crucial role in how individuals view themselves and interact with others, influencing their personal and social identity within the broader societal context. This identity can be reinforced through community connections, social dynamics, and historical experiences that define different groups.
Cultural nationalism: Cultural nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes the importance of shared cultural heritage, language, traditions, and history in defining a national identity. This concept connects to ethnic and racial activism by focusing on the role of cultural identity in mobilizing communities to assert their rights and resist oppression, often leading to movements that advocate for the recognition and preservation of cultural practices and values.
Dolores Huerta: Dolores Huerta is a prominent labor leader and civil rights activist best known for co-founding the United Farm Workers (UFW) alongside César Chávez in the 1960s. Her advocacy for labor rights, gender equality, and social justice has made her a key figure in the historical movements for ethnic and racial activism in the U.S., particularly in the fight for the rights of farmworkers and marginalized communities.
Freedom rides: Freedom rides were a series of civil rights actions in the early 1960s where interracial groups traveled by bus into the segregated southern United States to challenge the non-enforcement of Supreme Court decisions that ruled segregated public buses unconstitutional. These rides aimed to test and draw attention to the continued racial segregation in public transportation, serving as a catalyst for further civil rights activism and awareness.
Haymarket Affair: The Haymarket Affair was a pivotal event in American labor history that occurred on May 4, 1886, in Chicago, where a rally in support of workers striking for an eight-hour workday turned violent. The incident began as a peaceful demonstration but escalated when a bomb was thrown at police, resulting in the deaths of several police officers and civilians. This event highlighted the tensions between labor activists and law enforcement, and it became a significant moment for the labor movement and ethnic and racial activism in the U.S.
Institutional racism: Institutional racism refers to the policies, practices, and procedures within institutions that, intentionally or unintentionally, disadvantage individuals based on their race. This form of racism is embedded in the structures and operations of social, economic, and political institutions, influencing access to resources, opportunities, and treatment.
Little Rock Nine: The Little Rock Nine refers to a group of nine African American students who enrolled at Little Rock Central High School in 1957, marking a significant event in the American civil rights movement. Their attendance was met with intense resistance, including the intervention of the Arkansas National Guard to prevent them from entering the school. This event highlighted the deep-seated racial tensions in the U.S. and became a pivotal moment in the struggle for desegregation and equal rights.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was a prominent African American civil rights activist and a key figure in the struggle for racial equality during the 1960s. His advocacy for Black nationalism, self-defense, and human rights brought significant attention to issues of race and injustice in America, shaping the landscape of ethnic relations and activism in the U.S.
March on Washington: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, held on August 28, 1963, was a pivotal event in the civil rights movement where over 250,000 people gathered to demand equality and economic justice for African Americans. This monumental demonstration is best known for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic 'I Have a Dream' speech, which emphasized the need for racial harmony and justice in America, reflecting the broader struggles against racial discrimination and advocating for civil rights legislation.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was an influential American civil rights leader, known for his commitment to nonviolent activism and his pivotal role in the Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s and 1960s. His advocacy for equality and justice helped to transform racial relations in the U.S. and inspired a broader movement for social change, promoting the idea that love and understanding could overcome hatred and oppression.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a pivotal civil rights protest that took place in Montgomery, Alabama, from December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956, aimed at ending racial segregation on public buses. Sparked by the arrest of Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, the boycott lasted for 381 days and involved African Americans refusing to use the city buses, ultimately leading to a Supreme Court ruling that declared segregation on public buses unconstitutional. This event marked a significant moment in the civil rights movement and had lasting effects on ethnic relations in the United States.
NAACP: The NAACP, or National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, is one of the oldest and most influential civil rights organizations in the United States, founded in 1909. It played a crucial role in fighting for the rights and representation of African Americans, addressing issues such as discrimination, voting rights, and educational equality, while advocating for legislative change and social justice.
NAGPRA: NAGPRA, or the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, is a U.S. federal law enacted in 1990 that aims to protect Native American burial sites and facilitate the return of cultural items to their rightful owners. This law represents a significant step in recognizing the rights of Indigenous peoples over their ancestral remains and cultural artifacts, bridging a gap between historical injustices and contemporary advocacy for Native American rights.
Pullman Strike: The Pullman Strike was a nationwide railroad strike in the United States that took place in 1894, primarily involving workers from the Pullman Company. It was a significant labor protest against wage cuts and high rents in company-owned housing, ultimately leading to clashes between striking workers and federal troops. This event is pivotal in understanding the historical context of labor rights and ethnic and racial activism in the U.S.
Racial pride: Racial pride refers to a positive and affirming attitude towards one's racial or ethnic identity, often emphasizing the unique cultural heritage, history, and contributions of that group. This term connects to the process of individuals developing a strong sense of identity and belonging, as well as the historical movements that sought to empower marginalized communities and advocate for their rights in society.
Redlining: Redlining refers to the discriminatory practice of denying or limiting financial services, particularly mortgage loans and insurance, to residents in certain neighborhoods based on their racial or ethnic composition. This practice has deep roots in the historical development of systemic racism within American institutions and has led to long-lasting impacts on housing segregation and economic inequality.
Rosa Parks: Rosa Parks was an African American civil rights activist best known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which became a significant event in the struggle against racial segregation in the United States. By refusing to give up her bus seat to a white passenger in 1955, Parks sparked a movement that highlighted the injustices faced by African Americans and ignited broader campaigns for civil rights across the nation.
San Francisco State College Strike: The San Francisco State College Strike was a significant student-led protest that took place from November 1968 to March 1969, advocating for the establishment of a Black Studies program and greater inclusion of ethnic studies within the curriculum. It marked a pivotal moment in the broader context of ethnic and racial activism in the U.S., as it emphasized the need for representation and recognition of diverse cultural perspectives in higher education. The strike involved students, faculty, and community members, uniting various racial and ethnic groups in their demands for educational reform and social justice.
Sit-in: A sit-in is a nonviolent protest strategy where individuals occupy a space, typically a public area or establishment, to draw attention to social or political issues, often demanding change or equality. This method became a powerful tool in the civil rights movement, allowing activists to confront segregation and discrimination directly, while peacefully asserting their demands for justice and equality.
SNCC: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was a key organization in the American civil rights movement, founded in 1960 to promote nonviolent protest and grassroots organizing among students. It played a significant role in mobilizing young activists, leading sit-ins, voter registration drives, and the Freedom Rides, while advocating for racial equality and justice in the U.S.
Thurgood Marshall: Thurgood Marshall was an influential civil rights lawyer and the first African American Supreme Court Justice, serving from 1967 to 1991. His legal work significantly advanced the cause of racial equality in the United States, most notably through his role in landmark cases that challenged segregation and discrimination.
Voting Rights Act: The Voting Rights Act is a landmark piece of federal legislation enacted in 1965 aimed at overcoming legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment. This act was crucial in advancing the political participation and representation of ethnic minorities, particularly in the context of ongoing civil rights struggles.
W.E.B. Du Bois: W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his influential ideas on race, identity, and social justice. His work laid the foundation for understanding the complexities of African American identity and the systemic barriers faced by Black individuals in America, connecting personal experiences to broader social and historical contexts.
Women's suffrage movement: The women's suffrage movement was a social and political campaign aimed at granting women the right to vote in various countries, most notably in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement emerged from broader discussions about equality and civil rights, intertwining with other social justice movements and advocating for women's full participation in democratic processes.