7.2 Historical development of systemic racism in American institutions
2 min read•august 7, 2024
Systemic racism has shaped American institutions since the colonial era. From to , legal systems enforced racial oppression. Even after civil rights victories, disparities persist in wealth, education, housing, and criminal justice.
Discriminatory policies like and racial covenants segregated housing. Voting restrictions and economic barriers limited minority political and financial power. Despite progress, the impacts of historical racism continue to affect communities of color today.
Legalized Racial Oppression
Enslavement and Segregation
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- Slavery legalized the ownership and exploitation of African Americans as property from the colonial era until the Civil War (1619-1865)
- After the Civil War, Jim Crow laws enforced racial and discrimination in the Southern United States
- Separate public facilities for whites and blacks (schools, restrooms, transportation)
- Restricted voting rights, employment, and housing for African Americans
- School segregation continued after the Civil War, with separate and unequal educational resources for black and white students
- (1896) upheld "separate but equal" doctrine
- (1954) overturned Plessy, but desegregation faced massive resistance
Ongoing Racial Disparities
- Despite legal advances, significant racial disparities persist in areas like wealth, education, housing, and criminal justice
- The racial wealth gap, rooted in historical policies, shows white families have substantially higher median wealth than black families
- 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances: Median white family wealth 24,100 for black families
- disproportionately impacts communities of color
- and tough-on-crime policies led to dramatic rise in incarceration from 1970s-2000s
- African Americans are incarcerated at over 5 times the rate of whites (NAACP)
Discriminatory Policies and Practices
Housing Discrimination
- Redlining was a discriminatory housing policy starting in the 1930s
- Government-sponsored Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) created "residential security" maps
- Neighborhoods with minority residents were marked as high-risk and outlined in red
- Denied access to favorable mortgages and insurance, driving racial segregation and disinvestment
- Racial covenants, blockbusting, and steering also excluded minorities from white neighborhoods
- (1948) ruled racial covenants unconstitutional, but informal discrimination persisted
Political and Economic Disenfranchisement
- Voting rights restrictions have suppressed minority political participation
- Poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses in Jim Crow era
- Felony disenfranchisement laws still restrict voting for millions, disproportionately people of color
- Voter ID laws, closing polling places, and purging voter rolls continue to hinder voting access
- Discrimination in employment, education, and business loans has limited economic opportunities
- Median black household income is 61% of median white household income (2019 Census data)
- Minority-owned businesses face challenges accessing capital and contracts
- Affirmative action policies to address disparities have faced legal challenges and rollbacks
Key Terms to Review (23)
Anti-racism: Anti-racism refers to the active process of identifying, challenging, and eliminating racism in all its forms. This includes recognizing the systemic and structural inequalities that perpetuate racial discrimination and working to dismantle these oppressive systems. It is not merely a passive stance against racism but requires conscious effort and commitment to promote racial equity and justice.
Brown v. Board of Education: Brown v. Board of Education was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1954 that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. This ruling was a significant turning point in the Civil Rights Movement, as it challenged the legality of separate educational facilities for African Americans and whites, ultimately contributing to the fight against systemic racism within American institutions.
Civil Rights Movement: The Civil Rights Movement was a social and political struggle during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial discrimination and securing equal rights for African Americans and other marginalized groups in the United States. This movement not only influenced laws and policies but also reshaped the social fabric of America, impacting various ethnic relations and identities.
Colonialism: Colonialism is a practice where a country establishes control over foreign territories, exploiting resources and people while imposing its own culture and governance. This phenomenon has shaped global power dynamics and continues to influence issues of identity, representation, and systemic inequality, especially in discussions of historical contexts and ongoing impacts in society.
Critical Race Theory: Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an intellectual movement and framework that examines the relationship between race, racism, and power. It challenges the traditional narratives around race and advocates for understanding how systemic racism operates in legal, social, and political contexts, thereby influencing various aspects of society.
Institutional racism: Institutional racism refers to the policies, practices, and procedures within institutions that, intentionally or unintentionally, disadvantage individuals based on their race. This form of racism is embedded in the structures and operations of social, economic, and political institutions, influencing access to resources, opportunities, and treatment.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework that examines how various social identities—such as race, gender, sexuality, and class—interact and shape experiences of privilege and oppression. This concept highlights the complexity of social categorizations and emphasizes that individuals may face multiple forms of discrimination simultaneously, leading to unique experiences and challenges.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow Laws were state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century, enforcing racial segregation and disenfranchising African Americans. These laws institutionalized a system of systemic racism, shaping social, economic, and political life and maintaining white supremacy in various aspects of daily living.
Mass incarceration: Mass incarceration refers to the substantial increase in the number of individuals imprisoned in the United States, particularly since the late 20th century, disproportionately affecting communities of color. This phenomenon is deeply rooted in systemic racism and policies that have historically targeted specific racial and ethnic groups, leading to the over-policing and sentencing of these populations. Understanding mass incarceration requires an examination of its historical development within American institutions and the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to it.
Michelle Alexander: Michelle Alexander is a civil rights advocate and legal scholar best known for her book 'The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness,' which argues that systemic racism has been entrenched in American institutions, particularly the criminal justice system. Her work draws parallels between historical forms of racial discrimination and contemporary issues like mass incarceration, highlighting how these practices perpetuate racial inequality.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case from 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the 'separate but equal' doctrine. This ruling reinforced systemic racism in American institutions by legitimizing discriminatory laws and practices, significantly affecting the lives of African Americans and shaping the legal landscape for civil rights for decades to come.
Postcolonialism: Postcolonialism is an intellectual framework that examines the lasting impacts of colonialism on cultures, societies, and identities, particularly in former colonies. It highlights how colonial powers shaped and influenced these societies and the ongoing struggles for identity, representation, and power in a postcolonial world. This term helps to understand the historical context of systemic inequities and how they persist in contemporary structures.
Racial justice: Racial justice refers to the systematic fair treatment of individuals of all races, ensuring equitable opportunities and outcomes while addressing the historical and current injustices faced by marginalized racial groups. It involves recognizing and dismantling the structural inequalities entrenched in society, aiming for a society where race does not determine one’s social, economic, or political status.
Racialization: Racialization is the process through which individuals or groups are assigned racial identities based on perceived physical traits, behaviors, or cultural characteristics. This concept plays a crucial role in understanding how social context influences identity, creating categories that affect personal and group experiences in society.
Redlining: Redlining refers to the discriminatory practice of denying or limiting financial services, particularly mortgage loans and insurance, to residents in certain neighborhoods based on their racial or ethnic composition. This practice has deep roots in the historical development of systemic racism within American institutions and has led to long-lasting impacts on housing segregation and economic inequality.
Segregation: Segregation refers to the enforced separation of different racial or ethnic groups within a society, leading to unequal access to resources, opportunities, and rights. This concept has been integral in shaping social dynamics, particularly in the context of community formation, systemic racism in institutions, and historical injustices related to slavery and civil rights struggles. The impact of segregation can still be felt today as it contributes to ongoing disparities across various aspects of life for marginalized communities.
Shelley v. Kraemer: Shelley v. Kraemer was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case from 1948 that ruled racial covenants in property deeds could not be enforced by state courts, effectively addressing discriminatory practices in housing. This decision played a significant role in highlighting the intersections of race, property rights, and systemic racism within American institutions, revealing how legal frameworks have historically upheld segregation and discrimination.
Slavery: Slavery is a system in which individuals are owned by others, deprived of personal freedom, and forced to work against their will. This practice has historical roots that intertwine with issues of race, economics, and social hierarchies, shaping cultural identities and societal structures over time. The legacy of slavery continues to influence modern systems of oppression and inequality.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event is a significant example of systemic racism embedded in American policies, as it reflects the government's disregard for Native American rights and sovereignty, leading to immense suffering and loss of life among the displaced populations.
Voter suppression: Voter suppression refers to a variety of tactics aimed at discouraging or preventing specific groups of people from exercising their right to vote. These tactics can manifest in laws, policies, and practices that disproportionately affect ethnic minorities, often rooted in historical systemic racism within American institutions. Such suppression undermines the democratic process by limiting political participation and representation for marginalized communities.
W.E.B. Du Bois: W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his influential ideas on race, identity, and social justice. His work laid the foundation for understanding the complexities of African American identity and the systemic barriers faced by Black individuals in America, connecting personal experiences to broader social and historical contexts.
War on drugs: The war on drugs refers to the U.S. government's campaign, initiated in the 1970s, aimed at reducing illegal drug trade and use through strict law enforcement and punitive measures. This campaign has been deeply intertwined with systemic racism, as it has disproportionately affected marginalized communities, perpetuating cycles of poverty, incarceration, and social inequality.
White Supremacy: White supremacy is an ideology that promotes the belief that white people are superior to those of other racial backgrounds, often manifesting in social, political, and economic structures that privilege white individuals and marginalize non-white communities. This belief system intersects with various historical and contemporary forms of discrimination, influencing interdisciplinary studies by examining power dynamics, societal structures, and cultural narratives.