📔Intro to Comparative Literature Unit 3 – Classical Drama: Global Tragedy & Comedy

Key Concepts & Definitions

• Tragedy depicts the downfall of a noble hero or heroine, usually through some combination of hubris, fate, and the will of the gods
• Comedy features lighthearted and humorous plots, often involving mistaken identities, irony, and satire to highlight and critique societal norms
  • Includes subgenres such as Old Comedy (political satire) and New Comedy (focused on domestic life and relationships)
• Catharsis refers to the emotional release and purification experienced by the audience through their engagement with the dramatic action
• Mimesis is the imitation or representation of reality in art and literature, a key concept in understanding the role of drama in ancient societies
• Hamartia represents the tragic flaw or error in judgment that leads to the protagonist's downfall
• Anagnorisis is the moment of critical discovery or recognition in a play, often contributing to the character's reversal of fortune (peripeteia)
• Deus ex machina, meaning "god from the machine," is a plot device in which a seemingly unsolvable problem is abruptly resolved by an unexpected intervention of a divine or supernatural force

Historical Context

• Classical drama emerged in ancient Greece during the 6th century BCE, with the works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides
  • Developed alongside religious festivals honoring Dionysus, the god of wine, fertility, and theatre
• Greek plays were performed in outdoor amphitheaters, with actors wearing masks to represent different characters and emotions
• The Roman Republic and Empire adapted and expanded upon Greek dramatic traditions, with notable playwrights such as Plautus, Terence, and Seneca
• Classical drama served important social, political, and religious functions in ancient societies
  • Provided a forum for exploring complex moral and philosophical questions
  • Helped to shape and reinforce cultural values and identities
• The rediscovery of classical texts during the Renaissance led to a renewed interest in and adaptation of ancient dramatic forms and themes

Major Playwrights & Works

• Aeschylus (525-456 BCE), considered the father of tragedy, known for his Oresteia trilogy and Prometheus Bound
• Sophocles (497-406 BCE), famous for his Theban plays, including Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone
  • Introduced the use of a third actor and expanded the role of the chorus
• Euripides (480-406 BCE), known for his psychological realism and unconventional protagonists in plays such as Medea, The Bacchae, and Hippolytus
• Aristophanes (446-386 BCE), the most prominent representative of Old Comedy, known for his biting political satire in works like The Birds and Lysistrata
• Menander (342-290 BCE), a key figure in New Comedy, known for his focus on domestic life and relationships in plays such as Dyskolos and Samia
• Plautus (254-184 BCE) and Terence (195-159 BCE), Roman comic playwrights who adapted Greek New Comedy for Roman audiences
• Seneca (4 BCE-65 CE), a Roman tragedian whose works, such as Medea and Phaedra, influenced the development of tragedy in the Renaissance and beyond

Themes & Motifs

• The relationship between humans and the divine, often exploring the limits of human knowledge and the consequences of defying the gods
• The nature of justice, fate, and free will, as characters navigate complex moral dilemmas and confront the consequences of their actions
• The destructive power of pride, hubris, and excessive ambition, as exemplified by tragic heroes such as Oedipus and Prometheus
• The importance of family, duty, and social order, particularly in the context of political and personal conflicts (Antigone)
• The role of women in society, with plays often featuring strong female characters who challenge traditional gender roles and expectations (Medea, Lysistrata)
• The use of disguise, mistaken identity, and role reversal as a means of exploring social hierarchies and power dynamics (Dyskolos)
• The tension between individual desires and societal norms, as characters struggle to reconcile their personal aspirations with the expectations of their communities

Dramatic Structures & Techniques

• The three unities of action, time, and place, which dictate that a play should have a single main plot, occur within a 24-hour timeframe, and be set in a single location
  • These principles, derived from Aristotle's Poetics, were influential in shaping classical and neoclassical drama
• The use of a chorus to provide commentary, background information, and emotional responses to the action on stage
  • The chorus also served as a bridge between the characters and the audience, helping to guide the audience's interpretation of the events
• The structure of Greek tragedy, typically consisting of a prologue, episodes (scenes) alternating with choral odes (stasima), and an exodus (final scene)
• The use of dramatic irony, where the audience knows more than the characters on stage, creating tension and anticipation
• The employment of stichomythia, a technique characterized by rapid, alternating lines of dialogue between characters, often used to heighten dramatic tension or highlight conflicts
• The incorporation of music, dance, and poetic language to create a multisensory theatrical experience
• The use of masks, costumes, and props to convey character, emotion, and symbolism

Cultural Significance & Impact

• Classical drama played a crucial role in shaping the cultural identity and values of ancient Greek and Roman societies
  • Served as a means of exploring complex moral, philosophical, and political questions
  • Helped to reinforce social norms and hierarchies while also providing a space for critique and subversion
• The works of ancient playwrights have had a lasting influence on Western literature, theater, and art
  • Themes, characters, and dramatic structures from classical drama continue to be adapted and reinterpreted in modern contexts
• The study of classical drama has contributed to the development of literary criticism, dramatic theory, and performance studies
• Classical plays have served as a source of inspiration for countless writers, artists, and thinkers throughout history
  • Shakespeare, Racine, and Goethe are among the many authors who have drawn upon classical themes and techniques in their own works
• The enduring popularity of classical drama attests to its ability to speak to universal human experiences and concerns, transcending time and cultural boundaries

Comparative Analysis

• Comparing and contrasting the works of different playwrights can reveal important insights into the development of classical drama over time
  • For example, examining the differences between Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides can shed light on the evolution of tragic form and themes
• Analyzing the similarities and differences between Greek and Roman drama can help us understand the ways in which cultural and historical contexts shape artistic expression
  • Roman adaptations of Greek plays often reflect the distinct social, political, and moral concerns of Roman society
• Comparing classical drama to other ancient literary forms, such as epic poetry and historiography, can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the cultural landscape of the ancient world
• Exploring the parallels between classical drama and modern theatrical traditions can highlight the enduring influence and relevance of ancient plays
  • For instance, comparing the use of the chorus in Greek tragedy to the role of the narrator in Brechtian epic theater can reveal important continuities and innovations in dramatic technique
• Examining the representation of marginalized groups, such as women and slaves, in classical drama can provide insight into the social and political dynamics of ancient societies and their relevance to contemporary issues of diversity and inclusion

Modern Interpretations & Adaptations

• Classical plays continue to be performed and adapted in modern contexts, often with updated settings, language, and themes
  • Examples include Jean Anouilh's Antigone (1944), which reframes the conflict between Antigone and Creon as a struggle between idealism and pragmatism in the context of Nazi-occupied France
• Modern productions of ancient plays often incorporate innovative staging techniques, multimedia elements, and contemporary cultural references to make the works more accessible and relevant to today's audiences
• Playwrights and screenwriters have drawn upon classical themes and characters to create new works that speak to modern concerns and sensibilities
  • For example, the film Chi-Raq (2015) by Spike Lee is a modern adaptation of Aristophanes' Lysistrata, using the classic comedy to address issues of gang violence and racial inequality in Chicago
• Scholars and artists continue to explore the psychological depth and complexity of classical characters, offering new interpretations and insights into their motivations and actions
  • Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931) transposes the Oresteia trilogy to post-Civil War New England, using the ancient myth to explore themes of family dysfunction, guilt, and revenge in a modern context
• The enduring appeal of classical drama lies in its ability to illuminate universal human experiences and conflicts, inviting audiences to reflect on their own lives and societies through the lens of ancient stories and characters
  • By engaging with modern interpretations and adaptations, we can continue to find new meaning and relevance in these timeless works, ensuring their ongoing significance in the 21st century and beyond