Glossary

3.2 European medieval literature: Beowulf, The Canterbury Tales, and The Divine Comedy

6 min read•august 13, 2024

Medieval literature showcases epic heroes, , and religious allegories. , , and represent key works from this era, each offering unique insights into medieval culture and values.

These texts explore themes of , , and through different literary styles. From to , they reflect the diverse linguistic and cultural landscape of medieval Europe.

Heroic and Epic Traditions in Beowulf

The Hero's Journey and Heroic Ideals

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  • Beowulf, an Old English epic poem, exemplifies the heroic and epic traditions of early medieval English literature
  • The epic centers on the hero Beowulf, a Geatish warrior who comes to the aid of Hrothgar, king of the Danes, to fight the monster Grendel and later Grendel's mother
  • Beowulf embodies such as bravery (fearlessly confronting monstrous foes), loyalty (to his lord Hrothgar and his own people), strength (possessing extraordinary physical prowess), and honor (upholding his reputation and fulfilling his duties)
  • His character arc follows the epic hero's journey, a common narrative pattern in which the hero undertakes a quest, faces challenges and temptations, and ultimately achieves a transformative victory (defeating Grendel and his mother, and later in life, the dragon)

Anglo-Saxon Warrior Culture and Christian Influences

  • Beowulf reflects values of the , such as the between a lord and his thanes (the mutual obligation of protection and service) and the importance of establishing one's reputation through courageous deeds
  • The poem employs common epic conventions including beginning (in the middle of the action), featuring long digressions (such as the story of Sigemund), using and (such as "prince of the Geats"), and incorporating supernatural elements (monsters and mythical creatures)
  • Christian themes and motifs are interwoven with the pagan Germanic story, reflecting the time period in which the poem was written down
    • The poem includes references to the Christian God and biblical events (such as the story of Cain) alongside pagan beliefs and practices
    • The conflict between Beowulf and the monstrous descendants of Cain can be seen as a metaphor for the struggle between good and evil in Christian theology

Social Commentary in The Canterbury Tales

Satirizing Medieval Society through Diverse Characters

  • The Canterbury Tales by is a collection of stories framed as a storytelling contest among a group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury
  • The General Prologue introduces the pilgrims, using their descriptions and behavior to satirize and comment on various social classes, occupations, and institutions of 14th-century English society
  • The pilgrims represent a diverse cross-section of medieval society, including members of the clergy (such as the Monk and the Prioress), aristocracy (the Knight and the Squire), middle class (the Merchant and the Franklin), and peasantry (the Plowman and the Miller)
  • Their characterizations often subvert social expectations and ideals, revealing the gap between appearance and reality (such as the seemingly noble Knight who has participated in mercenary campaigns)

Exposing Corruption and Moral Failings through Irony and Humor

  • Chaucer employs irony, exaggeration, and humor to expose corruption, hypocrisy, and moral failings, especially among religious figures
    • The Pardoner, who sells indulgences and fake relics, preaches against greed while embodying it himself
    • The Summoner, who summons people to ecclesiastical court for moral offenses, is himself guilty of corruption and immoral behavior
  • The tales told by the pilgrims range in tone and genre, including romances (the Knight's Tale), fabliaux (bawdy, comic tales like the Miller's Tale), beast fables (the Nun's Priest's Tale), and exempla (moral tales like the Pardoner's Tale), revealing different facets of the characters' personalities and social concerns
  • Recurring themes throughout the tales include (the idealized, often adulterous love between a knight and a married noblewoman), the proper conduct of clergy, corruption in the church, social class, and gender roles and relations (such as the power dynamics in marriage)

Allegory and Religion in The Divine Comedy

Allegorical Journey and Spiritual Redemption

  • The Divine Comedy is an epic poem by that recounts the poet's imaginative journey through the three realms of the Christian afterlife: Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Heaven)
  • The poem is heavily allegorical, with characters, locations, and events representing abstract ideas, religious concepts, and moral qualities
    • Dante's journey represents the soul's progression towards God and the process of spiritual redemption, from recognizing and rejecting sin (Inferno), to purifying oneself of sinful tendencies (Purgatorio), to ultimately achieving union with the divine (Paradiso)
    • Virgil, Dante's guide through Hell and Purgatory, symbolizes human reason and classical wisdom, while Beatrice, Dante's guide through Heaven, represents divine revelation and grace
  • Each realm is populated by historical and mythological figures whose placement corresponds to the nature of their sins (such as the lustful in the second circle of Hell), the virtues they must cultivate (the proud on the first terrace of Purgatory), or their degree of beatitude (the great theologians in the fourth sphere of Heaven)

Medieval Christian Cosmology and Theology

  • The structure of the three realms reflects medieval Christian cosmology and numerological significance
    • Hell consists of nine circles, each corresponding to a different category of sin, with Satan at the center
    • Purgatory is a seven-terraced mountain, representing the seven deadly sins and their corresponding virtues
    • Heaven is composed of nine celestial spheres, each associated with a different heavenly body and a different level of beatitude, culminating in the Empyrean, the realm of pure light and the abode of God
  • The poem engages with theological and philosophical questions, such as the nature of sin, the process of redemption, the relationship between faith and reason, and the ultimate goal of human existence in union with God
  • Dante draws upon a wide range of classical and biblical references to create a comprehensive synthesis of medieval knowledge and belief, incorporating elements from Greek and Roman mythology, Aristotelian philosophy, and Christian doctrine (such as the Trinity and the Resurrection)

Medieval Literary Styles and Themes

Poetic Forms and Cultural Contexts

  • Beowulf, The Canterbury Tales, and The Divine Comedy represent different stages and regional traditions within the medieval period, from Old English (Beowulf) to Middle English (The Canterbury Tales) to Italian vernacular literature (The Divine Comedy)
  • All three works are written in verse, but employ different poetic forms and styles:
    • Beowulf uses alliterative verse (repetition of initial consonant sounds) and a heightened, archaic diction reflective of its oral tradition
    • The Canterbury Tales are written in rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter (ten-syllable lines with alternating unstressed and stressed syllables), with each tale employing a style appropriate to its genre and narrator
    • The Divine Comedy uses the Italian vernacular and terza rima, a rhyme scheme of interlocking tercets (three-line stanzas) with the pattern aba, bcb, cdc, etc.
  • The works reflect different cultural and religious contexts: Beowulf emerges from a Germanic warrior culture with pagan roots, while The Canterbury Tales and The Divine Comedy are products of Christian medieval society, albeit in different regions (England and Italy, respectively)

Heroism, Morality, and the Role of Religion

  • All three works engage with questions of morality, virtue, and the nature of heroism or ideal conduct, whether through the lens of the warrior ethos (Beowulf's bravery and loyalty), social satire (exposing the gap between religious ideals and practice in The Canterbury Tales), or spiritual (Dante's journey towards divine union in The Divine Comedy)
  • The role of religion differs in each work:
    • Beowulf blends pagan and Christian elements, reflecting the transitional nature of the early medieval period in England
    • The Canterbury Tales offers a satirical treatment of corrupt clergy and religious institutions, while still affirming the value of genuine faith and morality
    • The Divine Comedy places Christian doctrine and cosmology at the center of its narrative and allegorical structure, serving as a comprehensive expression of medieval religious belief
  • While Beowulf and The Divine Comedy focus on the journeys of a central heroic or everyman figure (Beowulf and Dante, respectively), The Canterbury Tales presents a diverse range of characters and perspectives, offering a broader social panorama of medieval English society

Key Terms to Review (31)

Allegory: Allegory is a literary device in which characters, events, and details symbolize deeper meanings and abstract concepts, often conveying moral, social, or political messages. It uses symbolic figures and actions to represent ideas and qualities that go beyond the literal narrative, allowing readers to engage with multiple layers of meaning within a text.
Anglo-Saxon Warrior Culture: Anglo-Saxon warrior culture refers to the social and martial ethos prevalent among the Anglo-Saxon people in England from the 5th to the 11th century, emphasizing loyalty, bravery, and the importance of kinship and honor. This culture played a critical role in shaping the literature of the time, reflecting values such as heroism and the significance of reputation, which can be seen prominently in epic poetry and narratives.
Anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet: The anonymous Anglo-Saxon poet refers to the creators of Old English literature during the early medieval period, whose identities are largely unknown. These poets composed significant works that have greatly influenced English literature, with notable examples including epic poems and religious texts that reflect the culture, values, and beliefs of their time.
Beowulf: Beowulf is an epic poem written in Old English, telling the story of a heroic warrior who battles monsters and dragons to protect his people. This poem is one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature, showcasing themes of heroism, loyalty, and the struggle between good and evil. It provides insights into the values and culture of medieval society, influencing later literary traditions.
Chivalry: Chivalry refers to the medieval knightly system that emphasized virtues such as bravery, honor, loyalty, and respect for women and the weak. It created a code of conduct for knights that dictated their behavior in both war and peacetime, intertwining notions of martial prowess with moral integrity. This concept significantly influenced literature during the medieval period, shaping characters and narratives in various works.
Christianity in the Middle Ages: Christianity in the Middle Ages refers to the dominant religion and cultural force in Europe from roughly the 5th to the late 15th century. This period saw the church not only guiding spiritual life but also influencing literature, politics, and social structures, which can be seen in works that reflect Christian themes, morality, and the quest for salvation.
Comitatus bond: The comitatus bond refers to a social and moral code of loyalty and mutual obligation that existed between a lord and his warriors during the early medieval period. This bond was characterized by the expectation that warriors would defend their lord to the death in exchange for protection, rewards, and status, creating a strong sense of community and loyalty among the members. It played a crucial role in shaping the warrior culture of the time and is a central theme in various literary works from this period.
Courtly love: Courtly love is a medieval European literary concept that idealizes chivalric romance and the adoration of a noble lady, emphasizing the themes of unattainable love, loyalty, and the pursuit of personal honor. It often portrays love as a complex, often painful experience that elevates the lover's moral and social standing, intertwining with notions of knightly duty and virtue.
Dante Alighieri: Dante Alighieri was an Italian poet of the late Middle Ages, best known for his epic poem 'The Divine Comedy,' which is considered one of the greatest works of world literature. His writing reflects the philosophical, theological, and political ideas of his time, connecting deeply with themes found in other medieval texts while also paving the way for Renaissance thought.
Elevated language: Elevated language refers to a formal, sophisticated style of expression that often uses grand or poetic diction to convey high ideals, important themes, or to elevate the status of the subject being discussed. This type of language is frequently employed in literary works to evoke a sense of grandeur and to elevate the narrative or characters, particularly in epic poetry and moral tales.
Epic Poetry: Epic poetry is a long, narrative poem that recounts the adventures and deeds of heroic figures, often intertwined with themes of valor, fate, and the influence of the gods. These poems serve not only as entertainment but also as a means to explore cultural values, historical events, and moral lessons, often reflecting the identity of a civilization. Epic poetry is characterized by its elevated style, grand scope, and intricate storytelling, making it a significant form of literature across various cultures.
Epithets: Epithets are descriptive phrases or adjectives used to characterize a person or thing, often highlighting a particular quality or trait. In medieval literature, they serve not only to enhance the narrative but also to establish a deeper connection between the reader and the characters, enriching their identities and roles within the story.
Geoffrey Chaucer: Geoffrey Chaucer was an English poet and author, best known for his work 'The Canterbury Tales,' which is considered one of the most important pieces of literature from the Middle Ages. He is often referred to as the 'Father of English literature' for his use of the English vernacular in a time when Latin and French were more dominant in literary contexts, connecting him to the broader themes of European medieval literature.
Gothic art: Gothic art refers to a style of visual art and architecture that emerged in the High and Late Middle Ages, roughly from the 12th to the 16th century. Characterized by its ornate details, verticality, and innovative use of light, it reflects the cultural shifts of the medieval period, including religious devotion and societal changes. This style significantly influenced various forms of literature and storytelling, enhancing themes of the supernatural, morality, and human experience in works from this era.
Heroic ideals: Heroic ideals refer to the values, traits, and qualities that define a hero in literature and culture. These ideals often include bravery, honor, loyalty, and a commitment to justice, depicting characters who undertake extraordinary journeys or face significant challenges for the greater good. In various literary works, these ideals serve as benchmarks for characters' actions and moral decisions, influencing the narrative and the audience's perception of heroism.
Heroism: Heroism refers to the qualities and actions associated with being a hero, often characterized by bravery, self-sacrifice, and the pursuit of noble ideals. This concept is deeply rooted in literature and culture, where heroes embody virtues that inspire others and face formidable challenges for a greater good.
In medias res: In medias res is a narrative technique where a story begins in the middle of the action rather than at the beginning. This approach captures the reader's attention immediately by thrusting them into a crucial moment, often revealing background information through flashbacks or dialogue as the story unfolds.
Italian Renaissance: The Italian Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in the late 14th century and lasted into the 17th century, marking a period of renewed interest in art, literature, science, and the classical ideas of ancient Greece and Rome. This era is characterized by remarkable advancements in visual arts, humanism, and the emergence of influential literary figures who shaped European culture.
Italian terza rima: Italian terza rima is a poetic form consisting of three-line stanzas with an interlocking rhyme scheme of ABA BCB CDC, which creates a rhythmic and flowing quality. This structure enhances the thematic connections between stanzas, allowing for a progression of ideas and emotions, and is often associated with works from the Italian Renaissance. Its influence can be seen in major literary pieces that explore complex narratives and philosophical themes.
Medieval scholasticism: Medieval scholasticism is a method of learning that developed in the medieval universities of Europe, emphasizing dialectical reasoning and the integration of faith and reason. This intellectual tradition sought to reconcile religious beliefs with philosophical inquiry, often using texts from classical philosophers and church teachings to explore theological questions.
Moral allegory: Moral allegory is a literary device where characters and events represent broader moral or ethical meanings, often illustrating lessons about good and evil, virtue, and vice. This approach allows writers to convey complex moral messages in an engaging way, using stories that can be interpreted on both a literal level and a deeper, symbolic level.
Morality: Morality refers to the principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. It encompasses the values, ethics, and beliefs that guide individuals and societies in their conduct, often shaped by cultural, religious, and philosophical influences. In literature, morality serves as a central theme, influencing characters' actions and societal norms.
Narrative poem: A narrative poem is a form of poetry that tells a story, often featuring a sequence of events and characters. This type of poem combines poetic language with elements of storytelling, allowing for the exploration of themes and emotions while engaging the reader with a plot. Narrative poems can vary in length and structure, but they typically maintain a clear narrative arc.
Old English Literature: Old English literature refers to the body of written works produced in England from the 5th to the 11th century, predominantly in the Old English language. This literary period is characterized by its epic poetry, religious themes, and the use of alliterative verse, which laid the foundation for later English literature, including notable works such as 'Beowulf', 'The Canterbury Tales', and 'The Divine Comedy'.
Old English verse: Old English verse refers to the poetic form used in Anglo-Saxon literature, characterized by its use of alliteration, strong stresses, and a specific rhythmic structure known as accentual meter. This verse form plays a crucial role in works like epic poems and religious texts from the early medieval period, establishing a foundation for later literary traditions in England.
Social commentary: Social commentary is a form of expression that critiques society, its norms, and its injustices, often aiming to raise awareness and provoke thought or change. It is often embedded in literature, art, and media, reflecting the author’s perspective on social issues and encouraging readers to engage with these themes. The effectiveness of social commentary can be seen in how it highlights the complexities of human experience and societal dynamics.
Spirituality: Spirituality refers to the personal quest for meaning, connection, and a sense of purpose in life, often involving a relationship with the divine or a higher power. It emphasizes individual experiences and beliefs, rather than formal religious doctrines, and can manifest in various ways, including nature, personal reflection, or community engagement.
The Canterbury Tales: The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 14th century, framing a diverse group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of Thomas Becket in Canterbury. This work is significant for its vivid portrayal of medieval society, showcasing a range of characters from different social classes and their unique narratives, reflecting the complexities of human nature and the social norms of the time.
The Divine Comedy: The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri in the early 14th century, which explores the journey of the soul towards God. The poem is divided into three main sections: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso, each depicting different realms of the afterlife and reflecting medieval Christian beliefs about sin, redemption, and divine love. Its complex narrative structure and rich symbolism make it a cornerstone of European literature, connecting deeply with themes found in other works of medieval literature.
Theodicy: Theodicy is a philosophical and theological concept that seeks to address the problem of evil in the world, specifically reconciling the existence of a benevolent and omnipotent deity with the presence of suffering and injustice. This term often examines the reasons behind human suffering and how it fits within a divine plan, particularly in the context of literature that grapples with moral questions and existential dilemmas.
Verse romance: Verse romance is a narrative poem that typically tells stories of love, adventure, and chivalry, often featuring noble characters and idealized relationships. This form emerged in medieval literature and is characterized by its rhythmic structure and vivid imagery, making it distinct from prose narratives. It often reflects the cultural values of the time, such as courtly love and heroism, connecting deeply with the themes found in notable works from the medieval period.
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