8.1 Causes and Course of the Peloponnesian War
5 min read•august 13, 2024
The Peloponnesian War pitted Athens against Sparta in a 27-year struggle that reshaped ancient Greece. Growing tensions between the two powerful city-states, fueled by Athens' rising influence and ideological differences, eventually erupted into all-out conflict.
The war unfolded in two main phases: the and the . Key events like the Sicilian Expedition and the had major impacts. The conflict ended with Sparta's victory, dramatically altering the balance of power in the Greek world.
Causes of the Peloponnesian War
Growing Tensions between Athens and Sparta
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- The Peloponnesian War was a protracted conflict between the city-states of Athens and Sparta that lasted from 431 to 404 BCE
- The war was primarily caused by the growing power and influence of Athens, which threatened Sparta's traditional hegemony in the Greek world
- Athens had become the dominant naval power in the Aegean Sea, while Sparta maintained its supremacy on land
- The , led by Athens, had evolved into an Athenian empire, with Athens exerting control over its allies and extracting tributes from them
- The ideological differences between Athens, a democratic city-state, and Sparta, an oligarchic society, also contributed to the growing hostility between the two powers
Immediate Triggers for the War
- The immediate trigger for the war was a series of disputes between Athens and Sparta's allies, particularly Corinth and Megara
- In 433 BCE, Athens imposed on Megara, a Spartan ally, which was seen as an act of aggression by Sparta
- Corinth, another Spartan ally, was involved in conflicts with its colony Corcyra, which sought help from Athens, further escalating tensions
- These disputes, combined with the underlying tensions between Athens and Sparta, ultimately led to the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War in 431 BCE
Peloponnesian War: Major Events
The Archidamian War (431-421 BCE)
- The Archidamian War began with Sparta invading Attica, the region around Athens, while Athens relied on its to attack Sparta's coastal allies
- The Athenian statesman adopted a defensive strategy, bringing the population within the city walls and avoiding direct confrontation with the Spartan army
- The crowded conditions in Athens led to a devastating plague that killed a significant portion of the population, including Pericles himself
- The was a truce that lasted for six years, but it was ultimately unsuccessful in resolving the underlying conflicts between Athens and Sparta
The Sicilian Expedition and the Decelean War (415-404 BCE)
- The Sicilian Expedition (415-413 BCE) was a turning point in the war, as Athens launched a massive campaign to conquer the island of Sicily, which ended in a disastrous defeat for the Athenians
- The Athenian fleet was destroyed, and the expeditionary force was either killed or captured, significantly weakening Athens' military and financial resources
- In the Decelean War, Sparta, with the support of the Persian Empire, adopted a more aggressive strategy, establishing a permanent base in Attica and supporting rebellions among Athens' allies
- The final blow to Athens came in 405 BCE when the Spartan general decisively defeated the Athenian fleet at the , leading to Athens' surrender in 404 BCE
Athenian vs Spartan Strategies
Athens' Defensive Strategy
- Athens, with its powerful navy and fortified city walls, adopted a largely defensive strategy on land while using its fleet to attack Sparta's allies and maintain control over its empire
- The Periclean strategy involved avoiding direct confrontation with the Spartan army, relying on Athens' naval supremacy and the city's strong walls for protection
- Athens also used its financial resources to maintain its fleet and fund military campaigns, such as the Sicilian Expedition
- The Sicilian Expedition demonstrated the risks of Athens' aggressive imperial strategy, as the devastating defeat significantly weakened the city's military and financial capabilities
Sparta's Land-based Offensive
- Sparta, on the other hand, relied on its superior land forces and the support of its allies to pressure Athens and undermine its power
- Sparta repeatedly invaded Attica, burning crops and devastating the countryside, in an attempt to force Athens into a decisive battle
- Sparta also sought to foment rebellions among Athens' allies, particularly during the Decelean War, to weaken Athens' control over its empire
- Both sides also engaged in diplomacy and propaganda to win support from other Greek city-states and even foreign powers like the Persian Empire
- Sparta ultimately secured financial and naval support from Persia, which proved crucial in the later stages of the war
Key Figures in the Peloponnesian War
Athenian Leaders
- Pericles, the influential Athenian statesman, was instrumental in formulating Athens' defensive strategy during the early stages of the war
- Pericles advocated for a policy of avoiding direct confrontation with the Spartan army, instead relying on Athens' strong walls and naval supremacy to wear down the enemy
- His death during the plague in 429 BCE was a significant blow to Athens, as subsequent leaders proved less effective in managing the war effort
- , a controversial Athenian politician and general, played a complex role in the war, switching allegiances between Athens and Sparta
- Alcibiades was a key proponent of the Sicilian Expedition, which he saw as an opportunity to expand Athens' power and his own prestige
- However, he was accused of sacrilege on the eve of the expedition and fled to Sparta, where he advised the Spartans on how to defeat Athens
- Later, Alcibiades returned to Athens and led successful campaigns against Sparta, but his political enemies ultimately forced him into exile once again
- , an Athenian general and politician, was a leading advocate for peace with Sparta and opposed the Sicilian Expedition
- Despite his reservations, Nicias was appointed as one of the commanders of the expedition, along with Alcibiades and Lamachus
- After Alcibiades' defection and Lamachus' death, Nicias was left in sole command of the ill-fated expedition, which ended in a disastrous defeat for Athens
Spartan Leaders
- Lysander, a Spartan general, played a crucial role in the final years of the war, securing Persian support and reforming Sparta's navy
- Lysander's decisive victory over the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 BCE effectively ended the war, leading to Athens' surrender and the end of its empire
- Lysander's military successes and political influence helped shape the post-war Greek world, with Sparta emerging as the dominant power in the region
Key Terms to Review (20)
Alcibiades: Alcibiades was a prominent and controversial Athenian general and politician known for his charismatic personality and shifting loyalties during the tumultuous period of the Peloponnesian War. His actions significantly influenced the relationships between Athens, Sparta, and Persia, and he is often seen as a key figure in the rise and fall of Athenian power.
Archidamian War: The Archidamian War was the first phase of the Peloponnesian War, lasting from 431 to 421 BCE, named after the Spartan King Archidamus II. This conflict featured a series of annual invasions of Attica by Spartan forces and Athenian naval raids along the Peloponnesian coast, illustrating the contrasting military strategies of land-based Sparta and sea-oriented Athens. It ended with a temporary peace known as the Peace of Nicias, but tensions continued to simmer between the two powerful city-states.
Battle of Aegospotami: The Battle of Aegospotami was a decisive naval engagement fought in 405 BC during the Peloponnesian War, marking the end of Athenian naval power and leading to Sparta's dominance. This battle was crucial as it followed the long and destructive conflict between Athens and Sparta, highlighting the strategic shifts that occurred during the war. The outcome significantly influenced the political landscape of Greece, resulting in the decline of Athenian influence and paving the way for Spartan supremacy.
Decelean War: The Decelean War was a phase of the Peloponnesian War, occurring from 413 to 404 BCE, marked by increased Spartan aggression and the establishment of a permanent base at Decelea in Attica. This strategic move allowed Sparta to disrupt Athenian resources and bolster their naval capabilities, significantly impacting the war's dynamics. The war led to a shift in power as Sparta, aided by Persian support, ultimately overcame Athens.
Delian League: The Delian League was an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens, formed in 478 BCE, primarily to facilitate mutual defense against Persian aggression. This coalition also allowed Athens to consolidate its power and spread its influence across the Aegean Sea, which ultimately transformed the league into an Athenian empire that contributed significantly to the rise of democracy in Athens and the tensions leading to conflict with Sparta.
Democratic decline: Democratic decline refers to the gradual weakening or erosion of democratic institutions, practices, and norms within a political system. This phenomenon can lead to reduced political participation, increased authoritarianism, and the undermining of civil liberties and political rights. In the context of historical events, such as the Peloponnesian War, this decline can be linked to the internal strife and factionalism that plagued city-states, leading to a shift away from democratic governance.
Economic sanctions: Economic sanctions are political and economic restrictions imposed by one or more countries against a targeted country, group, or individual to influence behavior or policy. These sanctions can take various forms, including trade restrictions, asset freezes, and financial prohibitions, often aimed at compelling compliance with international laws or norms. They played a significant role in the dynamics of conflict and power shifts in ancient Greece, especially during periods of war and rivalry between city-states.
Economic turmoil: Economic turmoil refers to a period of significant instability and disruption in a nation's economy, characterized by declining productivity, rising unemployment, inflation, and financial crises. This state of disorder can lead to severe consequences for social structures and political stability, ultimately impacting international relations and conflicts.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or ideology of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means. This expansion often results in the domination of one nation over another, affecting the political, economic, and social structures of the conquered territory. In the context of ancient Greece, imperialism played a key role in shaping the relationships between city-states, particularly during conflicts like the Peloponnesian War.
Lysander: Lysander was a prominent Spartan naval commander during the Peloponnesian War, known for his strategic brilliance and leadership that ultimately helped Sparta defeat Athens. His role in the war was pivotal, particularly in the later stages when he secured critical victories that contributed to the decline of Athenian power and the rise of Spartan dominance in Greece.
Naval supremacy: Naval supremacy refers to the dominance of one nation's navy over others, allowing for control of sea routes and the ability to project military power across bodies of water. This concept played a crucial role in shaping the course of conflicts, particularly in the struggle for control over trade and resources. A powerful navy not only ensures protection against invasions but also enables the blockade of enemy ports and the establishment of maritime trade routes, which were essential for economic growth and military logistics.
Nicias: Nicias was an influential Athenian general and statesman during the Peloponnesian War, notable for his leadership and political maneuvering. He played a significant role in the conflict between Athens and Sparta, particularly as a proponent of peace at various points, which reflected his cautious approach to warfare and governance.
Peace of Nicias: The Peace of Nicias was a treaty signed in 421 BCE that aimed to establish a temporary truce between Athens and Sparta, effectively halting hostilities during the Peloponnesian War. This agreement sought to bring stability to the Greek city-states and to allow for a period of rebuilding and diplomacy after years of conflict, while also reflecting the ongoing power struggles and alliances within the Delian League and the wider Hellenic world.
Pericles: Pericles was a prominent and influential statesman in Athens during its Golden Age, particularly noted for his role in advancing democracy and the Athenian empire. His leadership helped to shape Athenian political life, foster cultural achievements, and expand the influence of Athens through military and diplomatic means.
Plague in Athens: The plague in Athens was a devastating epidemic that struck the city during the second year of the Peloponnesian War, around 430 BCE. This catastrophic event resulted in significant loss of life and had profound social, political, and military repercussions on Athenian society during a time of conflict with Sparta and its allies.
Power struggle: A power struggle refers to a conflict or competition for authority, control, and influence between individuals or groups. In the context of the Peloponnesian War, this struggle was exemplified by the rivalry between Athens and Sparta, where both city-states sought dominance over the Greek world. The intensity of these power struggles was not only political but also involved military confrontations, alliances, and strategic maneuvering, which shaped the course of the war and its consequences for Greek civilization.
Spartan Hegemony: Spartan hegemony refers to the dominance and influence of the city-state of Sparta over other Greek states, particularly during the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War. This period marked a time when Sparta established itself as the leading military power in Greece, using its formidable army to enforce its will and control various alliances, most notably the Peloponnesian League. This dominance was characterized by military prowess, political control, and efforts to maintain stability across the region.
Strategy of attrition: A strategy of attrition is a military tactic aimed at wearing down an opponent's strength through continuous losses in personnel and material. This approach emphasizes the long-term depletion of resources rather than seeking quick victories, often relying on the ability to sustain one's own forces while inflicting damage on the enemy over time. In the context of the Peloponnesian War, this strategy was significant as it reflected the differing approaches of Athens and Sparta, with Athens leveraging its naval power to weaken Sparta's capacity to wage war.
Treaty of 404 BC: The Treaty of 404 BC was a peace agreement that marked the end of the Peloponnesian War, formally concluding the conflict between Athens and Sparta. This treaty established Spartan hegemony over Greece and led to significant political changes, including the dismantling of Athenian democracy and the imposition of an oligarchic government in Athens known as the Thirty Tyrants.
Treaty of 421 BC: The Treaty of 421 BC was a peace agreement that ended the first phase of the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, known as the Archidamian War. This treaty was significant as it established a temporary truce, allowing both city-states to regroup and reassess their strategies, while also revealing the underlying tensions that would continue to fuel conflict in the future.