7.4 Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory
3 min read•july 19, 2024
Neo-Gricean theories build on Grice's framework, refining it to explain pragmatic phenomena more precisely. They introduce heuristics and principles that capture different aspects of pragmatic reasoning, balancing informativeness and economy in communication.
, on the other hand, focuses on the principle of relevance in human communication. It proposes that interpretation is guided by the search for optimal relevance, balancing cognitive effects and to understand both explicit and implicit content.
Neo-Gricean Theories
Principles of Neo-Gricean theories
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- Neo-Gricean theories build upon and refine Grice's original framework while maintaining the core idea of conversational and aiming to provide more precise and systematic explanations for pragmatic phenomena (scalar implicatures, presuppositions)
- Levinson's three heuristics capture different aspects of pragmatic reasoning
- suggests that what isn't said, isn't the case, leading to scalar implicatures ("some" implies "not all")
- states that what is expressed simply is stereotypically exemplified, allowing for generalized conversational implicatures (saying "John entered a house" implies it was his house)
- proposes that what's said in an abnormal way isn't normal, triggering implicatures from marked expressions ("John caused the car to stop" implies an unusual stopping event)
- Horn's Q and R principles focus on the balance between informativeness and economy in communication
- encourages speakers to make their contributions sufficiently informative for the current purposes of the exchange ("John ate some of the cookies" implies he didn't eat all of them)
- prompts speakers to make their contributions necessary and avoid redundancy (using "John's brother" instead of "John's male sibling")
Application of pragmatic theories
- Neo-Gricean analysis of the utterance "Some of the students passed the exam"
- Q-heuristic: The speaker did not say "all," implying not all students passed, generating a scalar implicature
- I-heuristic: The speaker is referring to a stereotypical situation where only a portion of students pass an exam
- Relevance theory analysis of the same utterance
- The interpretation "not all students passed" is optimally relevant as it yields positive cognitive effects (understanding the situation) with minimal processing effort, satisfying the hearer's expectations of relevance
- The (explicit content) is enriched from "some" to "some, but not all" through pragmatic inference guided by the search for optimal relevance
Relevance Theory
Tenets of relevance theory
- Relevance theory proposes that human communication is guided by the principle of relevance, which is a balance between positive cognitive effects (strengthening, revising, or abandoning assumptions) and processing effort
- states that human cognition is geared towards maximizing relevance by allocating attention and processing resources to the most relevant stimuli and thoughts
- Communicative Principle of Relevance suggests that every utterance conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance, warranting the attention and processing effort required for interpretation
- Pragmatic interpretation in relevance theory involves the hearer seeking an interpretation that is optimally relevant, yielding the greatest positive cognitive effects for the least processing effort
- Explicit content (explicatures) is derived by enriching the linguistic meaning through reference assignment, disambiguation, and other pragmatic processes (interpreting "I've had breakfast" as "I've had breakfast today")
- Implicit content (implicatures) is inferred based on the explicit content and the search for optimal relevance (interpreting "I've had breakfast" as a refusal to a breakfast invitation)
Neo-Gricean vs relevance theory
- Similarities between Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory
- Both aim to explain pragmatic phenomena and conversational implicatures, going beyond the literal meaning of utterances
- Both recognize the importance of context in interpretation, considering factors such as shared knowledge and expectations
- Differences between Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory
- Theoretical foundations
- Neo-Gricean theories are based on Grice's Cooperative Principle and conversational maxims, focusing on principles of conversation
- Relevance theory is grounded in cognitive psychology and the principle of relevance, emphasizing the role of human cognition in communication
- Approach to implicatures
- Neo-Gricean theories derive implicatures through heuristics and principles, such as the Q-heuristic and the R-principle
- Relevance theory sees implicatures as the result of the hearer's search for optimal relevance, guided by the balance of cognitive effects and processing effort
- Role of the speaker's intentions
- Neo-Gricean theories place less emphasis on the speaker's intentions, focusing more on the conventions and norms of conversation
- Relevance theory gives greater importance to the speaker's intentions in guiding the hearer's interpretation, as the speaker is assumed to aim for optimal relevance
- Theoretical foundations
Key Terms to Review (22)
Cognitive principle of relevance: The cognitive principle of relevance posits that human cognition is geared towards the maximization of relevance, meaning that individuals naturally seek information that is useful and pertinent to their goals. This principle suggests that when people communicate, they strive to present information that will yield the greatest cognitive benefit with the least amount of effort, impacting how messages are interpreted and understood.
Contextual Effect: Contextual effect refers to the impact that the context of an utterance has on the interpretation of its meaning. This includes how background knowledge, situational factors, and shared assumptions influence the way information is understood in communication, particularly in the frameworks of Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory. By considering contextual effects, one can better grasp how implicatures arise and how they shape conversational dynamics.
Contextualism: Contextualism is a philosophical approach in semantics and pragmatics that emphasizes the role of context in understanding meaning. It suggests that the meaning of expressions can vary based on the circumstances surrounding their use, such as speaker intentions, cultural background, and the specific situation. This perspective is essential for interpreting polysemy, reference, propositional attitudes, and the nuanced implications of conversation.
Conversational Inference: Conversational inference refers to the process through which listeners derive meaning beyond the literal words spoken, often relying on context, shared knowledge, and social cues. This term highlights how communication is not just about the words used but also about what is implied or understood in a particular interaction. It plays a crucial role in understanding how language operates within conversations, particularly in relation to theories that explore the dynamics of meaning and relevance.
Dan Sperber: Dan Sperber is a prominent anthropologist and philosopher known for his contributions to the fields of cognitive anthropology, semantics, and pragmatics. He is especially recognized for developing relevance theory, which focuses on how individuals derive meaning from communication based on the principles of relevance and the cognitive processes involved in interpretation.
Deirdre Wilson: Deirdre Wilson is a prominent figure in the field of linguistics, best known for her work on relevance theory, which she developed alongside Dan Sperber. Her contributions focus on how communication involves not just the literal meanings of words but also the context and the intentions behind them, highlighting the role of relevance in understanding language and meaning.
Explicature: Explicature refers to the process of enriching the literal meaning of an utterance with context-specific information that helps clarify its intended meaning. It plays a key role in understanding how listeners derive meaning from what is said, involving the integration of contextual clues and prior knowledge to form a more complete understanding of a message.
I-heuristic: An i-heuristic is a cognitive strategy that individuals use to make inferences about what others might mean or intend in communication, based on context and prior knowledge. This concept plays a crucial role in understanding how speakers convey implicit meanings and how listeners derive meaning from utterances, especially in the frameworks of Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory.
Implicature: Implicature refers to the meaning that is suggested or implied in communication, rather than explicitly stated. It plays a crucial role in understanding how language functions in context, revealing how speakers convey additional information beyond the literal interpretation of their words.
Indexicality: Indexicality refers to the phenomenon where the meaning of a word or expression is dependent on the context in which it is used, particularly the speaker, the time, and the place. This means that certain terms can change their reference based on who is speaking, when, and where they are speaking, highlighting the connection between language and context.
Inferential Communication: Inferential communication refers to the process through which speakers and listeners rely on context and shared knowledge to derive meaning beyond the literal words spoken. It emphasizes how much of what we communicate is inferred rather than explicitly stated, focusing on the implications and assumptions that underlie conversational exchanges. This type of communication plays a significant role in understanding intentions and meaning in interactions, linking closely with theories about how we convey and interpret messages.
Logical Inference: Logical inference is the process of deriving new statements or conclusions from existing premises based on established logical principles. It plays a crucial role in understanding how meaning is constructed in communication, as it allows speakers and listeners to draw conclusions beyond the literal meanings of words and phrases, often guided by context and pragmatic considerations.
M-heuristic: The m-heuristic refers to a specific cognitive approach that helps individuals determine the relevance of information in communication. This concept is grounded in how people make quick judgments about the significance of messages based on contextual clues and their prior knowledge, streamlining the process of understanding and interpreting meaning.
Maxim of relevance: The maxim of relevance is a principle in conversational implicature which suggests that speakers should provide information that is pertinent and appropriate to the ongoing discourse. This concept helps to ensure that communication remains focused and efficient, guiding interlocutors to interpret messages based on their relevance to the context of the conversation.
Presupposition: Presupposition refers to the implicit assumptions or background knowledge that must be accepted as true for a statement to make sense or be meaningful in a given context. This concept bridges the gap between semantics and pragmatics by illustrating how meaning can depend on context and shared knowledge, highlighting the interaction of language with social norms and expectations.
Processing effort: Processing effort refers to the mental resources required to understand, interpret, and respond to linguistic input during communication. This concept is crucial for understanding how people navigate conversations and derive meaning, influencing the efficiency of information processing and the quality of communication.
Q-heuristic: The q-heuristic is a principle used in conversational implicature that suggests speakers will provide information that is relevant and informative without being overly verbose. This heuristic helps to explain how listeners can infer meaning beyond what is explicitly stated by taking into account the context and expectations surrounding a conversation.
Q-principle: The q-principle, also known as the quantity principle, is a concept in pragmatics that suggests speakers should provide an appropriate amount of information in their communication—not too much and not too little. This principle relates closely to the idea that speakers should aim for relevance, ensuring that their contributions are informative and useful to the listener.
R-principle: The r-principle refers to the idea that the relevance of information in communication is a guiding factor in how meaning is derived. It suggests that speakers will aim to provide information that is relevant and meaningful to their audience, allowing for effective communication. This principle connects deeply with how people interpret utterances based on the expectations of relevance, aligning closely with the frameworks of Neo-Gricean theories and relevance theory.
Relevance Theory: Relevance Theory is a cognitive approach to understanding communication that emphasizes the importance of context and the mental processes involved in interpreting meaning. It suggests that human communication is guided by the search for relevance, where individuals make inferences based on the context and their prior knowledge to derive meaning from utterances. This approach challenges traditional views by prioritizing the role of cognitive processes over rigid maxims of conversation.
Strong implicature: Strong implicature refers to a type of conversational implicature that arises when the use of a particular expression strongly suggests a specific conclusion, leading listeners to infer more than what is explicitly stated. This concept emphasizes how certain utterances can carry inherent meanings that significantly narrow down the range of interpretations available, particularly in the context of speaker intentions and listener expectations.
Weak implicature: Weak implicature refers to a type of conversational implicature that arises when a speaker's utterance suggests additional information without making it mandatory for the listener to draw that conclusion. This implies that while the listener is encouraged to infer certain meanings, they can also choose not to, based on contextual clues or the flexibility of the statement. It highlights the idea that not all conversational implications are strict or obligatory, allowing for more nuanced interpretations in communication.