Glossary

3.2 Theories of reference: descriptive and causal-historical

3 min read•july 19, 2024

Theories of explore how words connect to things in the world. Descriptive theories link words to descriptions, while causal-historical theories trace words back to original naming events. Each approach has strengths and weaknesses in explaining how language refers to reality.

These theories impact how we understand meaning and truth. Descriptive theories tie meaning to descriptions, allowing for change. Causal-historical theories anchor meaning in initial naming, providing stability. Real-world examples highlight the practical implications of these different approaches to reference.

Theories of Reference

Descriptive vs causal-historical theories

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  • Descriptive theories propose reference is determined by associated with a term
    • is object satisfying descriptive content (the tallest mountain in the world refers to Mount Everest)
    • Meaning based on descriptive content, not actual object
  • Causal-historical theories propose reference is determined by initial "baptism" or
    • Referent is object originally named or referred to (the person named "Aristotle" at birth)
    • Reference maintained through of communication from initial naming to present use
  • Contrasting features highlight descriptive theories rely on content of descriptions while causal-historical theories rely on initial naming event and subsequent causal chain
    • Descriptive theories allow reference to change if descriptive content changes (the tallest mountain referring to K2 if it grew taller than Everest)
    • Causal-historical theories maintain reference regardless of changes in descriptive content (Aristotle still referring to the original person even if descriptions of him were found to be inaccurate)

Strengths and weaknesses of reference theories

  • Strengths of descriptive theories account for intuition that meaning is related to content of descriptions
    • Explain how reference can change over time as descriptions change (the fastest man alive referring to different people at different times)
  • Weaknesses of descriptive theories struggle to account for cases where descriptive content is incomplete or inaccurate but reference still succeeds
    • Face challenges with (someone referring to Einstein without knowing any accurate descriptions of him)
  • Strengths of causal-historical theories account for successful reference even when descriptive content is incomplete or inaccurate
    • Explain stability of reference over time (the name "Plato" referring to the same person across centuries)
  • Weaknesses of causal-historical theories struggle to account for intuition that meaning is related to descriptive content
    • Face challenges in explaining reference change and introduction of new terms (difficulty explaining how a new name can be introduced and refer to something)

Application to real-world examples

  • Analyzing examples using descriptive theories illustrates how referent is determined by descriptive content
    • "The first person to walk on the moon" refers to Neil Armstrong because he satisfies that description
      • If it were discovered Buzz Aldrin secretly took the first step, referent would change to him
  • Analyzing examples using causal-historical theories illustrates how referent is determined by initial naming event
    • "Christopher Columbus" refers to the person originally given that name, even if descriptions of his life were found to be inaccurate
      • If it were discovered he had a secret twin who actually did the things attributed to Columbus, the name would still refer to the original person named Columbus at birth

Implications for meaning and truth

  • Descriptive theories imply meaning is determined by content of descriptions
    • Truth is determined by whether referent satisfies descriptive content
      • "The tallest mountain is Mount Everest" is true if and only if Mount Everest is the tallest mountain
    • Meaning and truth can change as descriptive content changes
  • Causal-historical theories imply meaning is determined by initial naming event and subsequent causal chain
    • Truth is determined by properties of actual referent, regardless of descriptive content
      • "Aristotle was a philosopher" is true if and only if the original person named Aristotle was a philosopher, even if commonly attributed descriptions of Aristotle are false
    • Meaning and truth are more stable, not dependent on changes in descriptive content

Key Terms to Review (21)

Causal Chain: A causal chain refers to a sequence of events where one event (the cause) leads to another event (the effect), ultimately connecting multiple outcomes in a specific order. This concept is crucial in understanding how references can depend on the history and context surrounding terms, highlighting the importance of both direct and indirect influences on meaning.
Causal-historical theory of reference: The causal-historical theory of reference is a philosophical concept that explains how terms or names refer to objects in the world through a historical chain of communication and causation. This theory emphasizes the importance of the actual use and context of a name over mere descriptions or characteristics, suggesting that the reference of a name originates from an initial 'baptism' and is maintained through social interactions and language use. It contrasts with descriptive theories of reference, which focus on the properties associated with a term.
Contextual Meaning: Contextual meaning refers to the interpretation of a word, phrase, or sentence that is influenced by the surrounding context in which it is used. It emphasizes how meaning can shift based on situational factors, speaker intentions, and the relationship between participants in a conversation.
Denotation: Denotation refers to the literal or primary meaning of a word, phrase, or expression, as opposed to the meanings that can be derived from context or connotation. It is the explicit definition that you would find in a dictionary, serving as a foundational element in understanding language and communication.
Descriptive content: Descriptive content refers to the information or properties attributed to an expression, often determining its meaning or reference. It plays a crucial role in understanding how expressions relate to objects or concepts in the world, especially when discussing the theories of reference, which explore how language connects to its referents. In the context of proper names and definite descriptions, descriptive content helps clarify how individuals or things are identified based on their defining characteristics.
Descriptive Theory of Reference: The descriptive theory of reference is a view that holds that the meaning of a name or term is determined by the descriptions or properties that are associated with it. This theory suggests that a term refers to an object in the world based on the descriptive content we attach to it, which helps us understand how language relates to the entities it denotes. This theory contrasts with other approaches, particularly the causal-historical theory, which emphasizes the historical and social factors that connect terms to their referents.
Direct Reference: Direct reference is a theory in semantics which posits that certain terms refer directly to objects or entities without the need for a descriptive content to convey meaning. This concept contrasts with theories that suggest that reference is mediated by descriptions or mental representations, emphasizing the immediate connection between a term and its referent. The idea plays a crucial role in understanding how proper names, definite descriptions, and indexicals function within language.
Extension: In semantics, extension refers to the actual objects or entities that a term or expression denotes in the real world. It connects words and phrases to their real-world referents, which helps us understand how language relates to the things it represents. This concept is vital for grasping various theories of reference, distinguishing between meanings and actual objects, and analyzing different contexts where identity statements may shift in meaning.
Frege: Frege refers to the influential German philosopher and logician Gottlob Frege, whose work laid the foundation for modern semantics and the philosophy of language. His ideas on meaning, reference, and sense have significantly shaped the understanding of how language conveys meaning and how this relates to logic and communication.
Indirect reference: Indirect reference occurs when a speaker refers to an object or individual not by using its direct name, but by means of descriptions, properties, or contextual clues that convey the intended meaning. This can involve using descriptions that identify the referent without explicitly naming it, relying instead on shared knowledge or context to establish the reference.
Initial baptism: Initial baptism refers to the first act of naming an object or concept in a particular context, establishing a reference that allows for further discussions and understanding. This process is crucial because it sets the groundwork for how we communicate about and refer to entities in our language, linking directly to theories of reference that differentiate between descriptive and causal-historical approaches.
Meaning as Use: Meaning as use is a concept in semantics that suggests the meaning of a word or expression is determined by how it is used in various contexts, rather than by its reference to objects or properties. This idea emphasizes that language is not just about naming things but about the functions and roles words play in communication, reflecting the social practices surrounding language use.
Naming event: A naming event refers to the occurrence or act in which a particular individual, object, or concept is assigned a specific name, often tied to a broader theory of reference. This concept highlights the significance of the context and conditions under which names are applied and understood, showcasing how names can relate to their referents through various mechanisms, such as descriptive content or historical usage.
Problem of ignorance and error: The problem of ignorance and error refers to the challenges that arise in understanding how language refers to objects or entities in the world, particularly when individuals lack knowledge about those entities or make mistakes in their beliefs. This issue becomes especially relevant in theories of reference, where it highlights how descriptions might fail to accurately pick out the intended referent, leading to miscommunication or misunderstanding.
Reference: Reference is the relationship between language and the world, specifically how words and phrases relate to the entities they denote. It connects directly to the way we understand meaning at different levels, including how words point to objects, how sentences express propositions about those objects, and how discourse involves larger constructs of meaning. Reference is crucial for understanding context, as it helps clarify what specific entities are being talked about in various communicative situations.
Reference vs. Sense Distinction: The reference vs. sense distinction is a fundamental concept in semantics that separates the meaning of a term into two aspects: reference, which relates to the actual entity or object a term denotes, and sense, which encompasses the inherent meaning or conceptual content associated with that term. Understanding this distinction helps clarify how language functions in conveying meaning and allows for a deeper exploration of different theories surrounding how we identify and understand terms.
Referent: A referent is the actual entity or object that a word, phrase, or symbol denotes in the real world. This concept is crucial because it helps establish the connection between language and the world, allowing for effective communication. Understanding referents sheds light on lexical relations like synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and meronymy, as these relationships can affect how different words point to the same or different referents.
Rigid Designators: Rigid designators are terms that refer to the same object in every possible world where that object exists. Unlike descriptions that may vary in reference across different contexts, rigid designators maintain their reference consistently. This concept is crucial for understanding how proper names and certain expressions function in relation to theories of reference, highlighting the difference between descriptive and causal-historical approaches to meaning.
Saul Kripke: Saul Kripke is a prominent philosopher and logician known for his influential work in the philosophy of language and modal logic. He introduced key ideas about reference, particularly distinguishing between descriptive theories of reference and causal-historical theories, which reshaped our understanding of how names relate to the objects they denote. His contributions extend to model-theoretic semantics, propositional attitude verbs, and modal logic, establishing a foundation for discussions around meaning, necessity, and possible worlds.
Speaker meaning: Speaker meaning refers to the specific intent or communicative purpose behind what a speaker conveys in a given context, which may differ from the literal meaning of their words. Understanding speaker meaning involves grasping how context influences the interpretation of language, highlighting nuances such as implied meanings and the intentions behind statements.
Truth Conditions: Truth conditions refer to the specific circumstances or states of affairs that must hold true for a statement or proposition to be considered true. Understanding truth conditions helps in analyzing meaning, as it links language with the world by defining what makes a statement accurate or inaccurate, playing a crucial role in semantics and pragmatics.
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